*

>

THE
ANNALS

PHILOSOPHY.

<<

NEW SERIES.

JANUARY TO JUNE, 1826.

VOL. XI.

AND TWENTY-SEVENTH FROM THE COMMENCEMENT.-

EEE

Dondon :

Printed by C. Baldwin, New Bridge-street ;
FOR BALDWIN, CRADOCK, AND JOY,
PATERNOSTER-ROW,

ama +

1826.

al

“TABLE OF CONTENTS.

NUMBER I.—JANUARY.

: Page
Dr: Thomson’s: Answer to Dr. Ure’s Review ..........- WL é ba argues?’ 9 id
General Field on the Origin of Ergot....,....... Nate paelas Pele ae eee olassocks
Dr. Thomson's Analysis of the Ore of Iridium ....... SS A ae vee 7
Mr. Harvey on Naval Architecture........0 ...++0- PO08 GUL. ysa8 20
M. Berzelius on some Mineral Species ..........-. 00-0 -eeeeeeee p Seah ae] eo
Rev. Mr. Emmett on finding the Longitude at Sea. .......-.+..-. i's ae earned

Mr. Nixon on the Measurement of Heights by One Barometer, with the
Mequisite> Lables. sos 05: sa s0 soca vee aa 0 Aula Malawi clalatabiniailale Wall oles onze 33
Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations. .............-+00-0+ bia Seratete 43
Mr, Faraday on new Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen, &c......... 44
Analytical Account of a Treatise on Volcanos......... ahah t's AG, chalets ote a 50
Prdéecedings. of. the. Royal Society........- 2200000000 008%) /alubielals sieilp aie 55
——_—_—_—__—. Linnean Society. ..............eecceeeeeeecseenee 62
—__—_—_——— Astronomical Society. ..........+02++ Pe cts: 62
Notice of Dr. Thomson's New Work .. 0.2.12 4..!isiea sca sieieee os ewan oye - 68
Discovery of Lithia in the Mineral Waters of Bohemia...... AGeSeaE See 69
Gemieal Examination Of PeridOtys,.0<.- (st sc» tic valsiseceessnce vee s 69
Comparative Analysis of the Elastic Bitumen of England and France .... 70
On the Species or Varieties of the Human Race............-s60seeeeee 71
On the Plumage of the Oyster Catcher........---+++++ Shee ATE ase zh
On the Change in the Weight of Eggs during Incubation.............. 72
Weights and Measures. ........-ceeceesccccccncerce He Ro, Ginga edce 72
Mode of securing Anatomical Preparations .....+...+2.+eeseeeeceeeeees 74
Medical Matriculation at Edinburgh...............0.20.005 mates SORE FE:
_Proportion of Male and Female Children..........6..2++sseeeeeeeeeees 74
Pouilleton Atmospheric/Electricity: ...2..2+0+sseececlensetececccccscs 74
WNlew Scientific Books . ....s0-2cs+5 os+cencnone shee co ye Seok aN Bee eH A
(oo TE ray] i SS 2 SSR Beno Oty ab MAROC See) > IDC ae:
Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journal. .......2-.-++ee+sseecceeeces Ae!)

——
NUMBER 11.—FEBRUARY.

Mr. Horner ona Theorem of Fermat. ..... ate lapersielaia nietaipis (els = deservese OL
Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations. .....s.ssecsescssecseceseees 83

Mr. Nixon on the Measurement of Heights by One Barometer, with the
requisite Tables (concluded) .......+-+..405 SGaOCOOCAnES abe arin udoe 84.
Col. Beaufoy’s Meteorological Table for 1825......:ececevecceserereres G4

iv CONTENTS.

Page
Mr. Faraday on new Leese of Carbon and Hydrogen, &c. pling 95
M. Vanuxem on Anthracite, Plumbago, &¢.......++00++ aie pipe «a 6 aieyabeaare il Oey
Mr. Davies on the Combustion ‘of Compressed Gas .......-..++00-0000 111
Dr. Mitchill on the Hedgehog-Ray. .. oc cccnctos deer secwusioveeccennnes 112
RUPE ar reN Or ALeS olcjchs,s/s(« <cctetatelalne a aie a/oie/e\«isve)s w/esatnleteeletatelaisietet - 114
Dr. Turner on the Means cf detecting Lithia in Minerals by the Blow-

PPE chaise nieien an crise a clameiie s\eledinieinee winye onda Siti>.« «love ose! ere immmneatert 131
Mr. Cooper on a new Species of Grosbeak ........00+eeeeesecees vvisaeie, 124
Proceedings .of the Royal Society ....,..s.eccsesssecsecses » bea ee teen LOD
a z Geological Society’. \inisiiee ais slew swede Jo <snesmeme LAG
Discovery of Lithia in Mineral Waters,......... pacanite dinva le bey ee ered) LAG
Orange Gas produced from Fluor Spar and Chromate of Lead. .......... 146
PCCM ate OL LEON ¢.<o'se,0 ce ccdacs ts aNepaicins <Hbm odie owild sxe GP wERVIeE vEba 147
BalliahAGuolites'3 workll. sic Jed ptilas and da. bce ss eipsinplee See -pesvaner 148
Analysis of the Maryland Aérolite .........+. eayesesersae leap &-@REeE 149
Geological Survey of the Shores of the Severn. ........ses0eeeceeer eens 151
The Pantochronometer:s.0yt.!)c1).c0sdas ceewod picieatbhinD <Welep pnw eAeeS 152
Brench' Voyage of: Discovery. “.stuisisleys a0) seisbasish ae 9 cable vibe hesleo el
Weights and Measures... ace dc <ainesciseicaapleisle ahadieh > Wiis «eosin 154
Blew Scientific Books oo ose oc o':010 ce vie v'oi ole cae cei bldub « Sietcseoneeo ogee 157
New Patents .....2-...006 Swine cine vie Wty GROEN AY shi Din. ww trorererene wninirbte 158
Mr. Howard’s Meteorolegical Journal... .. CP ee LO ab b) car tO

—=———
NUMBER ITI.—MARCH,
Col. Beaufoy on the Going of a Clock with a Wooden Pendulum ...... 161
Results of various Meteorological Registers for 1825..........eeeeeeceue 163
Mr. Horner on the Solutions of the Function VY @........0..00e se Sie 168
On the Habits and Food of the Stickleback... +. 2.2.0... cc cc cucu cece ewes 173
Mr. Longmire on the Flame of a Candle.......... 0... ceeceeeceeeeees 176
Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations. ...........ecccceeeeeeeeeees 177
Menioir on the Expediency of surveying the Indian Archipelago ........ 178
Mr. Rainy’s Reply to Dr. Thomson. .........5.5...0.0008 Sok sd SOME éisy
Mr. Levy’s Descriptions of Two new Minerals ...........000 6000 ec ee ee 194

Desctiption of the Process of Amalgamation as carried on in Germany... 196
Analytical Account of the Philosophical Transactions for 1825, Part II. 202

Proceedings of the Royal Society.................. lean merle chive +90) 228
at Astronomical Soeiety’. [0.1 104.0... eee ee ees “asaiaheeh 229
——_———_—— Geological Society... 2.0.0... .... cece eee cee cece Sse 2ap
——- Medico-Botanical Society of London ...........+.. 232

Account of Prof. Berzelius’s Method of detecting Arsenic in the Bodies
Off Persans poisoned samen mice sea als cic Oh ok suc sali Ac cietewe ian a. 232
Prof. Berzelius’s Researches on Malybdeena. .........00..cseececceeeeon 235

Kin Native Sifver Won cmigativwars inieosts dg eicag aces och coe domssleeceute 237

CONTENTS. Vv

Page
Method of browning Iron ,............ Ps a bimsinicaln one secccceseseecceess 238
PWewrSclentic Ook i slic ceew os cece cess oacles Bietalatohstaligiele Wale slahiterais 239
MewsPatentastirse 3s hee Nee Veber saholtee oh waar om dey dwlemsbs 240

NUMBER IV.—APRIL.

Mr. Horner on the Solutions of the Function y* x (concluded) .......... 241

Mr. Herapath’s Reply to Mr. Horner. ........ arenes anamserasineeeeeue .. 246
Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations. ...........00:seeeeeeeeeeees 247
Sir H. Davy on the Preservation of Metals by Electro-chemical Means .. 248
Mr. Moyle on the Temperature of Mines.......... mre maieineraaye, de aniniereeas 259
Mr. Moore on a simple Method of graduating glass Hydrometers........ 261
Description of the Process of Amalgamation as carried on in Germany

EE ec cael S eas aa sc engaaticdacsanaatie ssc ser swerenio «chore 262
Sir C. L. Giesecke’s Account of a Mineralogical ihenisie to the Coun-

ties of Galway and Mayo ......ccceseecesce cece sccreees secses senso 271
On the Poison of the Toad ............ En cena emer Ore E, AOS Be ecules 297

M, Gay-Lussac on the reciprocal Decomposition of Bodies.............. 279
Analytical Account of the Philosophical Transactions for 1825, Part TL.

MCDIOLLAEH ) aha sic Wiaterelas <Jeishs)aleiojeverts a's oletciaiaisvas (sania ven ier e mena ae e Te - 281
Memoirs of the Astronomical Society of London, Vol. II. Part Powers 282
Spix, Avium Braziliensium Species Nove .......... “Pisin aS SUeoMEBaAae 284.
Proceedings of the Royal Society ............ ec poe Sod ehier “apace y: 289

Royal Institution. ..........- aut versal os caine aate 293

MGANGANS SOCIELY..jcre oa cla oe sc julstle medias cee Me wets + 204
——_—————— Astronomical Society. ........... siarsiewsietels tee ete 295

TSEOIGRNCAL SHOCICLY. au wacinep ced neuncesasar et Vises 300
Vegetable Principle in Saponaria Officinalis. ...... ......e..ce ence cease 302
Pupspnorescence of certain PAMAs . » oes eens yayyp eens ss cece se cteecs 303
EM MMIERTIA COR CEEN DEA. We sic wis vice v's sen ne gure eon acu ee ote ee 303
Formula for the Preparation of the Sulphate of Rhubarb........ aggiehias 304
Optical Structure of Edingtonite.............0.cceeeceeees to oar lag 304
New Analysis of Dioptase. ........... Fa PT PASI eT wigan 2a 1D polly 305
Fossil Deer of Ireland. ...... ndene et cased Lame vcta Ae ehie@efe Sak Hau aehs 305
Pecten niveus, a new Species... 060. ccccdeecescceas ceawts geil ui ade - 312
Bucw wemmrnmtent s 2.626225 55252h5 SOM), Sse teasers abe, ani sented» OLB
Preservation of Anatomical Preparations...........,...0000 4 obcidiea' Rand 315
Rea) ATMs 25 is Set ctskkt ack asaa dace shcaas (Wowsvebes) Atte 815
Bear SCIENGMG GIRS tee st seve eke tte es SS eOl Aa a. vee 9 (B15
New ope Ae Het dealin grit aad cobbbsseaseesrcs -«- 316

vi CONTENTS.

Page

NUMBER V.—MAY. -

Mr. Moseley on anew Application of the Method of Parameters to the

Petermination Ofeeriain Curves: ....\. 2. sels ose sec abe eee nee vores CF 821
Mr. Scanlan on a Volatile Oil, possessing peculiar Properties. obtained
IKON BOB LLCYec ve ceo e ate ce eee e tarot ete ttaco ds ve ts ae ae 326
M. Vauquelin on a new Variety of Wolfram, or Tungstate of Iron ...... 328
Mr. Stephens on the Influence of Chemistry on the Affairs of Life ...... 333
Prof. Sedgwick on the Classification of the Strata which appear on the
BW Orbentke COASt: - "> <'o oiltcl ais’ c's «san snthyeibiae iach Resins Relale CREA EEE 339
Masebiorner spitepiytoMic., Merapath : os bs. <0 sto tors wig wes cas ae 363
Mr. Nixon on the Accuracy of the Measurement of Heights by One
ERY) ies pags CRU AOOAT oe aan Me See a es ohne SUS
Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations. ..........0.eceeeeceeeecess 367
Dr. Henry’s Analysis of a crystallized Compound of Hyponitrous and Sul-
PUL IOZD CIO oe cristina nid de aBeishinaie el Pele Wim ae vines nce bile ldipiegh =piaelgoieee 368
Rey. Mr. Powell’s Historical Sketch of Photometry, with Remarks...... 371
M. Berzelius on Isomorphism as affecting Chemico-Mineralogical Sys-
iL RSS ROD ODOEOS 55 GONG TOR IOOSE oar ae) Ieee a nt eee Se 381
Analytical Account of Dr. Turner’s Work on the yanks Theory. . . 886
Proceedings of the Royal Society ........ Releaie's iste She butel tartare nota --» 390
Heyah Pat ttones nis ors a wpieen > tue pewiige “seemed 390
etrano mica! BOC a5 ne bie 0 <u avenge <A 891
Gealopical Society... 6s aos, sees, OT aes ae 392
Analysis of the Soot froma Wood Fire.......2...s0.esseesccssscsceces 394
Analysis of Lamp-black. ....... a Sn weir lap aleniegs TPL e clei deee dea ae eho 395
Alkaline, digestive Lozenges. .................. a sezlns ac rahi biaia nal tare 395
Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journals...... A oteeids Aivta aha vas o/s aetna 397
—=——
NUMBER VI.—JUNE.
Mr. George’s Experiments on the Colouring Matter of Lac, and on its
Application to the Dyeing of Scarlet. ..........0eessseree sees sik oye 401
Mr. Major on English Books of Naval Architecture........+-+.++++0+ +» 405
Mr. Horner on the Use of continued Fractions with unrestricted Nume-
rators in Summation of Series .......0+0eeee ee ee eset eres tere eenese «. 416
Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations .....0.++e++eeeeeeeeer cerns 422
M. Berzelius on Isomorphism as affecting Chemico- Mineralogical Sys-
tems (concluded) ....cesseecree cece cere nett neeteeen ence en seeecenees 4292
Rev. Mr. Vernon on the Strata North of the Humber, near Cave. (With
Finite) ieee cada accede sities cen AOA CEO oe 434

Report of the Committee appointed by the Council of the Astronomical
Society, for the Purpose of examining the Telescope coastructed by Mr.
Tully, by Order of the Council ............0.-eeeeeeeee eres tee see. 440

Mr. Barlow on the Magnetic Effect induced in Iron during the Act of
OTALIONG ROW ILM EAALES) ai cls. oes oc we tne eee os ecseis cue arie nelstenils 444

CONTENTS. Vil

Page
Proceedings of the Royal Society .............0..cceeecenecces eae 450
PROG Ey Past OTAS oie tole yao pteuipiadvad avn wie hn «oo 453
<--> Astron@intel Society st. b eas S ens ociew ce vnieneese 454
Se eolegical ‘Soriety. (.. font aieanan sae <s «nis piaivie ne ce 461
—. —— Zoological Society ..... Tk) o Hen ee Oo eee eee naa 463
On the Discovery of Live Cockles in a Peat Moss distant from the Sea... 464
Pere os Wound Seaeetide coy. oak Mee, at es, - 467
merephorescemm Madara: Oh onde Ps Wace oeten Boies Beec seen. antes 468
OMI Ss ca ee nn ae ee er et re A 468
On the Poisoning of Plants........... ... the-s isievere tate (aiejeieis = iia oem eleicle.s 469
Distribution of Land and Water ........... 0000. .cceccesceeece pekacia ies 469
ROIs ooo ak wie oles of Rietore aiets} Sister e ies ie ae We csleisws b 469
ee pive Boole. a 55.5. dang noes adele vuaeeee oe mds wiWis\eavapicots 470
oh Oe en jar ben soceeadec sencecse 471
Mr. Giddy’s Meteorological Journal ............0..cccececseccsecee se 472
Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journal. ... .....0.0.sseceeeececcseeuse +» 473
BEER aaa eats Obs leis ¢ Sate dave header. i oder ofl aseepheia whys », o's <5 olntsle/ela +2 475
PLATES IN VOL. XI. (New Serves.)
—
Plates Page
XXXVIII.— On the Strata North of the Humber, near Cave.......... 436
XXXIX.—On the temporary Magnetic Effect induced in Iron Bodies
Ep HeCeutDyl... Cains eae Gatch eee. ee 445

ERRATA IN VOL. XI.
a

Page 276. The words of “‘ No, 69—T0, in rhomboids,” belong to No. 74—75, and
must read thus: ‘¢ massive, and in rhomboids, with copper pyrites.”
391, line 16, for American, read Amician. 7

ANNALS

OF

PHILOSOPHY.

JANUARY, 1826.

ArTICLE I.

Some Observations on the Review of Dr. Thomson’s “ Attempt to
establish the First Principles of Chemistry by Experiment,” .in
the 39th Number of the Journal of Science. By the Author
of that Work.

Tuts is the fourth personal attack upon the Professor of
Chemistry in Glasgow College which has appeared in Mr.
Brande’s Journal—all of them from the “pen of the same indivi-
dual, Dr. Andrew Ure, of the Andersonian Institution, Glasgow ;
who it seems is not satisfied with puffing his own works in all the
Newspapers, and all the Reviews and Journals, where he cangeta
quack-bill admitted; but thinks it necessary likewise to exert his
energies to bring down other chemical writers to his own level.
Judging, naturally enough, that if in other respects they were all
upona par in the estimation of the public, the most impudent and
the most profligate would have the greatest chance of rising into
notice. Dr. Henry and myself happening to be the most suc-
cessful authors of chemical treatises in Great Britain, he levelled
his formidable batteries in succession against us both, with what
success I leave the public to determine.

To his attacks upon the fifth edition of my System of Che-
mistry, in which he informs his readers that the book is of no
value, but that no chemist can possibly do without it, I made no
reply ; leaving the two propositions which constituted the main
object of the review to refute one another. While engaged in
drawing up the review of the sixth edition of my System, he was
frequently coming about me, sometimes visiting me in my labo-
ratory, and sometimes at my own house ; and were I to repeat
the adulation with which he was perpetually loading me, and to
compare it with the terms in which he speaks of me in his
Review, written at the time when the expressions. of adulation
were still in his mouth, no one could believe that what I stated

New Series, vou, XI. B

2 Dr. Themson’s Answer [JAN.

could possibly be conformable to truth; except indeed those
individuals who are personally acquainted with the Andersonian
Professor. This review was published above a year before I had
an opportunity of seeing it; for the scientific journals in this
country are so numerous, and, as far as my own science is
concerned, so much the echo of each other, that instead of
taking them all, I satisfy myself with a selection, The Journal
of Mr. Brande, in consequence, I do not often see, as it is not
even ordered for the College library. On perusing the review at
the request of a friend, I saw that it required an answer, and
accordingly gave such a one as was requisite for vindicating my
character both as a chemist andaman. It would have beén easy
to have retorted with ten-fold interest upon the author of the
review; for there are very few chemical writers indeed whose
productions could be more easily exposed than the Andersonian
Professor of Glasgow. But I abstained from retaliation, because
Thad no relish for cleansing such an Augean stable, and because
I had no wish to degrade myself so far as to put myself on a
level with Dr. Andrew Ure. The castigation which I gave was

very moderate ; though at the same time it was complete, Dr.
Ure’s answer I have never seen. I was aware that he could
adyance nothing that could better his cause, or require any addi-
tional reply from me ; and I have laid it down as a rule never to
read any ill-natured attack upon me, unless I have previously
resolved to answer it.

I had heard of the present review from many quarters before
it made its appearance ; for the author, with his usual want of
prudence, and buoyed up by a most uncommon stock of vanity
and self-sufficiency, made no secret of his object; and mentioned
every particular which he thought of consequence, or likely to
hurt my feelings, and circulated it in Glasgow before his review
appeared. And on its publicaticn (after trying, it is reported,
some of the newspapers in vain), he got it printed and circulated
through Glasgow, in a weekly publication known by the name
of M‘Phan’s Glasgow Mechanic’s Magazine. I was aware,
therefore, of the nature and object of the attack before it made
its appearance ; and wrote to my publisher in London to send
me down a copy.

I had resolved, before I saw it, to make a few remarks on it ;
and [ now sit down with that object in view. Even yet I shall
refrain from inflicting the kind of castigation which the author
so richly deserves, and which has more than once fallen to his
share already, particularly from my friend Mr. R. Phillips, and
the late Dr. Murray, of Edinburgh. Atthe same time I do not
promise to be quite so abstemious as I was in my last reply. I
observe that the tone of the writer is a good deal lowered, and
that he speaks with rather more reserve of his own prodigious
discoveries and improvements. Still, however, he indulges a

1826.] do Dr. Ure's Review. 3

good deal in that gasconading manner for which he has been
always notorious, and which constituted a standing joke
against him in Glasgow when he was admitted into society. At
present neither his gasconades nor his pretensions excite much
attention in his native city.

My remarks on the present review will be short. I have no
intention of noticing, far less of retorting, the abuse in which the
author has indulged. I have too great a respect for my own
character to engage in any such degrading employment. Indeed
if I even felt the disposition to retaliate, 1 should be restrained
by the simple consideration, that in the city where we both
reside, all justification of myself is quite unnecessary. The bare
name of the author of the review will be considered by every one
who knows him asa sufficient refutation of every thing injurious
which the review contains; and if I could suppose that the
character and pretensions of this writer were as accurately
appreciated at a distance as they are in Glasgow, nothing more
would be necessary to divest the review of all its injurious effects
than barely to make known the name of the author.

1. Ishall begin my remarks by quoting the first paragraph of
the review.

“ The well-known author of this work regards the soul and
body of chemistry to consist in a knowledge of the relative
weights of the combining substances. This is to form a very
narrow conception of the science. The true function of the
chemical teacher is announced in the following verse of the
Roman poet :—

Tn nova fert animus mutatas dicere formas
Corpora.

‘It is the characteristic of chemical genius to reveal new
elementary bodies, to form new compounds of the elements
known before, to discover new qualities and relations both
among simple and complex substances, and to arrange the mani-
fold and marvellous phenomena of corpuscular action under a
few general laws. The philosopher of ardent and inventive

mind, content to know the general proportions, is unwilling to

stop his career of discovery in order to learn the minute frac-
tional quantities ; nor will he suffer his whole faculties to flutter
round the oscillations of a balance. Let none, however, hence
imagine, that we desire to disparage quantitative research; we
would only assign it a place of due subordination, below the
qualitative, conversant with new powers and forms of matter.”

Such is the elegant exordium of Dr. Andrew Ure—indicating,
if the author affixed any meaning to his werds, that accuracy in
chemical researches is a poor low quality unworthy the attention
of aman of genius. Now I wish to impress upon those gentle-
men who are entering upon the career of experimental chemistry,
that no opinion can be more erroneous, or likely to lead them

B2

4 Dr. Thomson’s Answer [Jan,

into so fatal mistakes. Without the minutest attention to preci-
sion, chemical researches are not only useless, but pernicious.
The whole of chemistry, so far as it is entitled to the name of
science, consists in the accurate measurement of quantities ; and
all the progress which it ever has made, or ever will make, must
depend upon a rigorous and judicious use of the thermometer
and the balance. Indeed all science consists in the determina-
tion of quantity ; and the most eminent scientific men have not
been discoverers of new substances; but have improved the
sciences to which they devoted themselves by a careful compa-
rison of the facts already known, deducing from them new
general laws, which had not been formerly recognised. Was it
not in this way that Newton acquired a rank in science to which
no other person has yet reached? He added no new substance
to the list of those already known. He made no augmentation
in the number of planets, or of satellites, recognised before his
time. But he did what was far more difficult. He showed that
all the motions of the planetary bodies are the consequences of
certain simple general laws. By pointing out these he has
enabled his successors to determine the motions and the situa-
tions of all the planetary bodies for any period of time with the
minutest accuracy, and thus to bring the science of astronomy
in some measure to a state of perfection.

Lavoisier existed at a period when chemistry was cultivated
in many parts of Europe with indefatigable zeal, and when new
substances and new properties of old bodies were made known
in considerable numbers almost every year. Lavoisier added no
elementary substance to those already known. It can scarcely
be said that he investigated the properties of a single chemical
body ; yet, assisted by the balance alone, he raised himself to a
higher chemical rank than any of his contemporaries. How
many new substances were discovered by Priestley, while
Cavendish scarcely added one to those already known? Yet
does not the latter rank much higher as a man of science than
the former? To come to our own time, who has been a greater
benefactor to chemistry, or who has merited a higher reputa-
tion, or will stand better in the opinion of posterity, than Mr.
Dalton? Yet what new chemical element-bas he discovered ?
The discovery of new chemical bodies is undoubtedly a merito-
rious work, and the science is much indebted to those who have
had the good fortune to add to their number. Butin the present
state of chemistry, it cannot be too forcibly inculcated, that he
who adds to the precision of the facts already known is of more
service to the science than he who adds to the number of ele-
mentary bodies. The science is still inundated by false facts,
which are retailed and appropriated by compiler after compiler
with the most careless indifference. Elementary books and
dictionaries of chemistry are annually accumulating, and errors

‘1826.] -to Dr. Ure’s Review. 5

are propagated till their origin ceases to be suspected, and till
they come to be generally believed. As an example, I may
mention that I happened sometime ago to turn up a System of
Chemistry, of considerable celebrity, written by a-chemist still
alive, and possessed of reputation. The account of nitrate of
silver caught my eye. I observed a minute statement respecting
the water of crystallization of this salt. Knowing that the
nitrate of silver is anhydrous, I shut the book, and have never
since been able to prevail on myself to open it again.

He who will take the trouble to determine with minute accu-
racy the properties of all known bodies, will do more to advance
the science of chemistry than he could accomplish by the disco-
very of a thousand new substances. The foundation of the
whole fabric is an accurate knowledge of the atomic weights of
bodies ; because upon that knowledge the whole art of analysis,
and consequently chemical experimenting, entirely depends. It
is only since the atomic theory has been brought to a consider-
able degree of perfection that the art of analvsis, and with it
chemical science, has made a considerable approach to preci-
sion: and every successful attempt to add further to the perfec-
tion of this important theory is in reality of more value to the
science than the discovery of a new simple substance; because
every new law, or extension, or modification of an old law, is of
more importance than any mere simple fact can be. I again,
therefore, caution young chemists from being led astray by the
tirade which I have just quoted. Indeed the author was
obviously writing merely to answer a particular purpose; for
every thing that he himself has attempted to do in chemistry
has been confined to the ascertaining of weight and measure.
Even in the present review, he piques himself upon his know-
ledge of the specific gravity, and the bulk of vapour at different
temperatures ; and such is the value which he sets upon some
tables indicating the strength of nitric and muriatic acids, which
it seems he has published; that he modestly insinuates that no
one but himself was capable of constructing them—that the
tables of these strengths which I myself have given must have
been stolen from his; and that, despairing of being able to
reach the degree of accuracy which he had obtained, [ volunta-
rily deteriorated his precious labours in order to conceal the
source from which I had acquired my information.

2. After his elegant exordium, which I have already laid
before the reader, Dr. Andrew Ure, of the Andersonian Institu-
tion, Glasgow, proceeds to display his profound knowledge of
the subject which he has undertaken to review. This he accom-
-plishes by a process sufficiently simple, and very common among
-Yeviewers, who are ambitious of displaying their learning and
extent of research without any expense of time and labour. He
transfers my historical introduction into his review, and gives it

6 Dr. Thomson’s Answer {Jan.

as his own, without the least acknowledgment, abusing at the
same time the work to which he stands indebted for every thing
that he happens to know of the subject.

3. It would serve no purpose to enter into any discussion
respecting the reason why a volume of oxygen gas 1s equivalent
to two atoms, while a volume of hydrogen gas is only equivalent
to one, respecting which the reviewer has written so much, so
absurdly, and so inconsistently. In a former review he informed
the public, that this law, which he sneered at as ridiculous, was
merely ablunder of mine, occasioned solely by my ignorance of
the common rules of arithmetic. Even yet it is obvious that he
does not understand the subject, though his confidence is
greatly softened down, and his arrogant ignorance rather better
concealed. He now tells us that it is the consequence of an
arbitrary convention among chemists in general. Should he
ever acquire chemical knowledge enough to take a general view
of the combinations of gaseous bodies, he will find that instead
of an arbitrary convention, it is founded upon an important law
of nature. An arbitrary convention of chemists in general it
certainly is not, since it never has been admitted by Berzelius
and his pupils, a pretty numerous, and surely a highly respect-
es body of chemists ; nor, so far as I know, by Sir Humphry

avy.

But much accurate information on the part of the reviewer, in
his present situation, and with his present feelings, is an acqui-
sition by no means probable.

Qui dubitat, quisepe rogat, mea dicta tenebit
Is, qui nil dubitat, nil capit inde boni,

is a maxim of old Lilly, which holds as truly in the present
day as when that celebrated pedagogue committed it to paper.
4, Neither is it worth while to examine the arguments which
the reviewer brings forward to show that hydrogen constitutes a
better atomic unit than oxygen. It is not of much consequence
what unit be adopted, provided chemists agree about the propor-
tions. I make oxygen unity because I think proportions are
more intelligible the smaller the numbers are by which they are
represented ; but in the tables which constitute an appendix to
my late work, I have given both scales, to accommodate those
who prefer the hydrogen scale to the oxygen one. The argu-
ments of the reviewer could not fail to be amusing, knowing, as
I did, that he has been in the habit himself of making use of the
oxygen scale. Nothing, therefore, but the spirit of contradic-
tion, and the ambition of saying what he considered as smart
things, could have induced him in his review to embrace the
side which he has taken. When he says that hydrogen enters
into more numerous and more interesting combinations than
oxygen, the statement is in direct variance with our present

1826.] to Dr. Ure’s Review. 7

chemical knowledge. Abundance of new combinations of ele-
mentary bodies indeed still remain unknown ; but hydrogen,
from its peculiar qualities, is less hkely to admit of our uniting
it to elementary bodies in general than oxygen, or any other
chemical body whatever. The only observation of the reviewer
upon this subject which has any force is borrowed from Dr.
Prout, and borrowed too as usual without acknowledgment.

5. By far the longest and most elaborate part of the review,
and what was intended to constitute the grand display of the
knowledge and sagacity of the reviewer, is the attack upon the
third chapter of my work. It occupies eight pages, and was
viewed by the author with much self-complacency. What
betrays the cloven foot of the reviewer is the qualification with
which he takes care to guard every observation. He admits the
truth of all my conclusions, satisfying himself with denying the
validity of all the premises. Now as the opinions which I have
advanced in my third chapter, though at present pretty generally
admitted, were, when I first gave them to the public in the
Annals of Philosophy, almost universally opposed, and by none
with more violence than by the author of the review; it is
certainly a most extraordinary accident, to say the least of it,
that should have led me to right conclusions from inaccurate
experiments and delusive reasoning.

For a full refutation of every thing contained in this redoubt-
able part of the review, I refer the reader to my answer to Mr.
Rainy, inserted in the Annals of Philosophy for November last,
and to my account of the analysis of sulphate of zinc printed in
the same number of that journal. It will be seen there that I
committed no mistake in my calculation, and that the experi-
ments were as near the truth as the most minute attention to
accuracy could enable me to go. The mistakes belong to the
author of the review, who left out of view a most important
part of the data, the boiling point of the acid which I employed.

{t was fortunate for the reviewer that this answer of mine did
not make its appearance till after the publication of the review.
It might have obliged him to have cancelled the most imposing
part of his essay, which would have obliterated a whole budget
of witticisms and repartees upon which I had»been told that he.
valued himself not alittle. He even boasted, it is said, to some
of the few individuals in Glasgow who still condescend to asso-
ciate with him, that he would demolish all my five years’ labours
in five minutes.

The witty remarks upon the capacity of the flask which I
employed for dissolving the zine in my experiments to determine
the specific gravity of hydrogen gas, are upon the whole the most
passable in the review. I have some thoughts, therefore, of
sending the flask to the managers of the Andersonian Institu-
tion, that they may place it in their museum with a suitable

3. Dr. Thomson’s Answer (JAn..

inscriptioa, as a memorial of the great prowess, the unimpeach-)
able candour, and the gentlemanly feelings of their worthy
professor. It is true that it met with a small accident about six
weeks ago, while I was showing its capatity to a gentleman
who had called on purpose to make inquiry on the subject, after
the appearance ofthis most formidable review. The accident is
merely a trifling crack, not far from the mouth. In other
respects the flask is still entire, and is very much at the service
ofthe managers of the Andersonian Institution. Perhaps indeed
the crack may rather contribute to add to the value of the flask,
as it will render it still more emblematical of the illustrious re-
viewer whose mighty deeds it is intended to commenrorate.
From the regard which the managers have lately manifested for
their worthy professor, I am led to believe that such a testimony
of his achievements would be most acceptable to them.

A regard for veracity obliges me, though with regret, to contra-
dict one of the most brilliant statements in this part of the review.
The author informs us that he repeated my experiment; but
that he took the precaution at the same time to insert a thermo-
meter into the flask containing the dilute sulphuric acid and
zinc, and that it stood 11° higher than the temperature of the
water in which the flask was plunged. Now in my experiments
24 hours elapsed before the zinc was fully dissolved. Had the
flask continued the whole of that time 11° above the water in
which it was plunged, the quantity of heat given out during the
~ solution of 130 grains of zinc must have been at least sufficient
to have heated six cubic inches of very dilute sulphuric acid
1500 degrees! Had the reviewer paid any attention to the
account which [ gave of my experiments, he would have seen
that I observed the temperature during the solution with the
most careful attention. The utmost rise when the experiments
were made in the way that I have described in my answer to
Mr. Rainy, did not exceed 11°; and during a very considerable
portion of the time, there was no rise of temperature whatever.

6. The reviewer roundly asserts that my table of the atomic
strength of munatic acid was copied from one which it seems
he published in the Journal of Science for January, 1822. I
was a little startled at learning the existence of this table, of
which [ was not aware till I saw it noticed in the review. lam
disposed to suspect that a theft has indeed been committed.
My table was exhibited to the students of chemistry in Glasgow
College (known to be a pretty numerous and annually increasing
body) for the first time during the winter session 1820-21.
Many copies of it were taken and dispersed. The review carries
internal evidence that the worthy Professor of the Andersonian
Institution is not a little upon the alert to know what is going
on in the College laboratory. Indeed I know from positive
information that he has more than once tampered with my

1826.] to Dr. Ure’s Review. 9

students. I strongly suspect that a copy of my table found its
way to the Andersonian Institution, and that it was thought too
good a thing not to be appropriated. Whether this conjecture
be well or ill founded is of little consequence. The priority in

oint of date is indisputably mine. Indeed had Dr. Ure even
published his table before mine was drawn up, I would have
still submitted to the labour of the requisite experiments;
because I had formed the resolution of subjecting every chemical
fact connected with my subject to a new and rigid examination,
whenever it was in my power to doso. Dr. Ure’s table pub-
lished in the Annals of Philosophy for 1817 is everywhere erro-
neous to the amount of about 33 per cent. The author was
then a supporter of the old doctrine respecting chlorine and
muriatic acid ; and after having demonstrated the truth of his
opinion by most irrefragable experiments, which the late Dr.
Murray declared had been stolen from him, he turned to the
right about, and embraced a theory which he had just before
demonstrated to be false !

My table of the strength of nitric acid was drawn up during
the winter 1821-22. The greater number of the specific gravi-
ties on which it is founded were taken by Mr. Colquhoun, of
Glasgow, who was at that time my assistant, with a degree of
care and attention which could not easily be surpassed. I have,
therefore, great confidence in the accuracy of the table. Dr.
Ure’s table I have never yet seen. It may be very accurate and
very useful. But had I been in possession of a copy of it, I
should still have considered it as requisite to draw up my own.

It was this determination to take nothing on trust that was the
cause of the great length of time which my experiments occupied.
They were all made with the most scrupulous attention to preci-
sion, and were all as accurate as the means in my power enabled
me to render them. When the substances were common, the
experiments were so frequently repeated, and so varied, that I
have the utmost confidence in the results. When the substances
were scarce, and when I was restricted to small quantities, the
risk of error was much greater. This was the case with palla-
dium, of which I possessed only a few grains, and respecting the
atomic weight of which I could not have acquired any satisfac-
tory knowledge, had not the previous experiments of Berzelius
enabled me to calculate in some measure beforehand. By the
liberality of Dr. Wollaston, I have been lately supplied with
some ounces of palladium. I have been enabled in consequence
to repeat and vary my experiments, and to extend them to
seveial other salts of that metal; and have had the satisfaction
to find that the atomic weights of palladium and its oxide, given
in my late work, are fully confirmed by these new investigations.

I may notice here the Doctor’s modest averment, that the
first analysis of oxalate of ammonia was made by himself, The

10 Dr. Thomson’s Answer [Jane

constituents of this salt, exactly as I have stated them, were
communicated to me by Dr. Prout before I left London in
1817. Berzelius had analyzed it at least as early; for he gives
its constituents in the tables attached to the third volume of his
Larbok i Kemien, published in 1818, which was translated into
French, and published by himself in 1819, under the title of
Essai sur la Théorie des Proportions Chimiques, a book which
Dr. Ure has no doubt seen. It requires no little command of
face to claim coolly as a discovery made by himself in 1822 an
analysis published by Berzelius in 1818. 1 never dreamed that
I was claiming as my own exclusively all the analyses which |
have given in my late work. It is indeed true that two-thirds of
them at least are new, and that all of them were repeated in my
laboratory either by myself or my pupils, under my superinten-
dence and direction. This was the object, and the sole object
in view. Historical details and claims of priority I left for my
System of Chemistry, in the various editions of which they demand
and obtain a place. I was not aware that Dr. Ure had favoured
the public with an analysis of this salt, and had I known it, I
should have seen no propriety in noticing his posthumous
labours.

7. The assertion that my experiments on the atomic weight
of lime, and the specific gravity of carbonic acid gas, are ficti-
tious, merits no answer, and shall receive none. I had occasion,
during my long and laborious researches on these important
subjects, to examine the validity of some previous experiments
of the worthy author of the review, by which he assured us that
the carbonates could be analyzed with the utmost expedition
and accuracy. I made no allusion to these experiments in my
late work, because I take no pleasure in exposing the mistakes
of others. Even here I should have been silent on the subject,
had the Doctor left me any alternative. I have not a doubt that
fictitious statements upon this subject have been palmed upon
the public. It was very natural for the author of the review,
conscious of the existence of his own previous statements, to
which he durst not venture to allude, to turn up his nose at my
researches; which he good-naturedly allows to be accurate as to
the conclusions, but impossible as to the premises. There is a
proverbial allusion to this very common mode of conduct too
indelicate to be quoted here; but well worthy of the Doctor’s
serious consideration, that he may know by it how to regulate
his conduct hereafter.

8. L beg leave to present my reader with another quotation
from the review. ‘‘ Now we afiirm that this experiment, from
which he deduces the atomic weight of chromium, was never
made, for the result is impossible. Ammonia does not precipitate
oxide of chromium from the above green solution in tartaric acid.”

The method here alluded to by the reviewer, and pro

1826.] to Dr. Ure’s Review. il

nounced impossible, ex cathedra, is as follows: Chromate of
potash is dissolved in water, and tartaric acid is added to the
rot solution till it acquires a green colour. Ammonia added to
this solution throws down the protoxide of chromium in the
state of a hydrate. It seems the worthy Doctor had been trying
his hand at this experiment ; but had been unsuccessful: and
such is his high opinion of his own prowess that he deems every
thing impossible which he cannot himself perform. But this is,
perhaps, rather narrowing the scale of possibility too much ; for
fam humbly of opinion that many things are not only possible,
but easy, which the Doctor cannot accomplish. Thus I know
that my friend Mr. Luke Howard can manufacture most beauti-
ful crystals of tartaric acid, and that my friend Mr. Ramsay, of
Glasgow, can manufacture excellent crystals of bichromate of
potash ; yet if we were to apply the Doctor’s test of possibility,
we should conclude that neither the acid nor the salt could be
manufactured at all. I shall be good-natured enough to explain
the cause of the Doctor’s failure, and thus render the prepara-
tion of protoxide of chromium by means of tartaric acid and
ammonia, a possible process, even when conducted by the
worthy Professor of the Andersonian Institution, Glasgow.

Tartaric acid has the property of combining at once with
potash and most other salifiable bases. If you digest bitartrate
of potash and protoxide of chromium mixed in the atomic pro-
portions, and with the requisite quantity of water, a complete
solution will be obtained, having a deep bluish green colour, and.
almost opaque. When this solution is evaporated to dryness,
a greenish black powder remains, which is a compound of two
‘atoms tartaric acid, one atom potash, one atom protoxide of
chromium, with a certain quantity of water of crystallization.
This salt is readily soluble in water, and like the other compound
tartrates is not precipitated by ammonia, nor by the fixed alka-
lies or their carbonates. This property of the compound tar-
trates has been long known to chemists; but it is particularly
insisted on in a note to a very valuable paper of M. H. Rose,
printed in the Memoirs of the Swedish Academy for 1820.

Dr. Ure had dissolved chromate of potash in water, and had
added not merely the quantity of tartaric acid necessary to
reduce the chromic acid to the state of protoxide; but enough
to saturate the potash and protoxide of chromium in the solu-
tion. He had thus formed the compound salt which I call
potash-tartrate of chromium. Now from the solution of this
salt when it has been once formed, the protoxide of chromium
cannot be precipitated by ammonia ; but even when this blunder
has been committed, the remedy is easy. Evaporate the liquid
to dryness, ignite the dry mass to destroy the tartaric acid,
digest the black residue in water to dissolve out the potash. A
black powder will remain which is a mixture of charcoal and

i2 Dr. Thomson’s Answer [JAN.

carbonate ofchromium. Muriatic acid will readily dissolve the
protoxide of chromium. Filter the solution to get rid of the
charcoal, and evaporate it to dryness to get rid of the excess of
acid. Ifthe muriate of chromium thus obtained be dissolved
in water and mixed with ammonia, protoxide of chromium will
be precipitated in abundance. If Dr. Ure will follow the simple
directions here given, I shall pronounce him a bungler indeed
if he cannot obtain protoxide of chromium in any quantity
whatever.

9. If the reader will indulge me in one quotation more from
this most delectable morsel of criticism, I will not trouble him
again. But I am unwilling to withhold any thing which is
likely to display the uncommon candour, profound knowledge,
and gentlemanly feelings, of the worthy Andersonian Professor
of Glasgow. The passage I allude to is as follows: “ His
number for tartrate of potash is unquestionably wrong ; and,
indeed, though it were right, his conclusion would be erroneous ;
for the mother-water (as he elegantly terms the limpid superna-
tant liquid) contains, under his proportions, both tartaric acid
and oxide of lead. Let it be tested with sulphate of soda, and
it will become cloudy ; with sulphuretted hydrogen, and it will
become very-black ; or with nitrate of lead, and tartrate of lead
will fall. ‘Thus the principle of Richter, of whose application
our Doctor is so vain, becomes under his management quite

deceptious.” (Review, p. 138.)

“As I consider the method which I took to determine the
composition of tartrate of potash to merit the attention of prac-
tical chemists, and as I made no allusion to the principles on
which this method is founded in my late work, I shall take the
present opportunity to point them out, There are some acids
which cannot be precipitated completely from saline solutions
by any reagent in our possession. Tartaric acid is in this predi-
cament. ‘Lartrate of lime is the most insoluble of all the tar-
trates, but the salts of lime do not precipitate this acid, unless
we evaporate the mixture to dryness; but tartaric acid is so
liable to be altered by heat, that this method is not quite safe.
Nitrate of lead precipitates tartaric acid immediately ; but tar-
trate of lead is not insoluble. Of course when nitrate of lead
and tartrate of potash are mixed in the atomic proportions after
the precipitate has subsided, a little tartrate of Jead will remain
in solution. I take care to concentrate this liquid so much that
the tartrate of lead which it retains can amount only to a small
fraction of a grain. I then test it with nitrate of lead and tar-
trate of potash—neither of which salts are capable of acting
upon the tartrate of lead present ; but if either lead or tartaric
acid exist not in combination with each other, these reagents
will indicate its presence. By this method we have it in our
power to determine the quantity of tartaric acid in a salt sufli-

1826.) to Dr. Ure’s Review, 13

ciently near to be sure of the atomic composition of the salt
under examination. The application of sulphate of soda and
sulphuretted hydrogen is out of the question, because these
reagents would act upon the tartrate of lead in solution. Were
nitrate of lead to act indeed, as the author erroneously states,
the inference would be that the tartaric acid in the mixture was
in excess.

In the analysis of tartrate of potash, I did not satisfy myself
with determining the quantity of tartaric acid in a given weight
of the salt, but ascertained likewise the amount of the potash.
My method was to ignite 16:5 grains of the crystals ina platinum
crucible, and to add to the solution nine grains of oxalic acid in
erystals. The potash was exactly saturated by this weight of
acid ; for the solution, after being heated to drive off the car-
bonic acid, did not alter the colour of litmus or cudbear paper.

10. I do not know whether the remarks made by Dr. Ure
upon the non-precipitation of lead by sulphate of soda be in
jest or earnest. He would scarcely have hazarded them, I
think, unless he had reckoned rather too much upon my for-
bearance, and on the ignorance of the reader ; for so far as I
know it was I myself who first pointed out this remarkable fact
in a paper printed a good many years ago in the Annals of
Philosophy. To advance a fact which I first pointed out as
a proof of my ignorance of the value of the reagents which I
employed, is a degree of barefaced impudence to which every
chemist in Great Britain would have been unequal, except the
Andersonian Professor of Glasgow.

11. There is one observation more of the reviewer to which it
will be requisite to attend before I conclude. He says that the
best way of obtaining pure salts is to take them as they are
prepared by manufacturing chemists. Were this recommenda-
tion to be adopted implicitly by young chemists, it would be
productive of most injurious mistakes. The competition in this
country among manufacturers is at present so great that they
are under the necessity of selling at too low prices to be able to
produce their salts in a state of complete purity. Caustic potash
is always contaminated with lead. Muriate of barytes as it
comes from the makers is usually in the same predicament, and
unless it be purified will be unfit for use as a reagent. Nitrate
of silver always contains gold, often copper, and sometimes

otash.* Carbonate of soda always contains sulphuric acid.

icarbonate of potash is never free from lime. I have found
sulphate of lime in the magnesia of commerce ; carbonate of
zinc is a constant ingredient in acetate of zinc. Sulphate of
zine is never, and sulphate of copper seldom free from iron,
Alum also is frequently contaminated with the same metal.
The muriatic acid of commerce is never free from sulphuric acid,

* Last summer I was favoured with a specimen of this salt prepared for sale in
Dublin, which I found perfectly pure.

14 General Martin Field on ‘[Jan,

and this is the reason why its specific gravity is so high as 1-22,
When I spoke of muriatic acid in my work, [ meant pure acid,
and I have never been able, even in winter, to obtain it higher
than 1°212.

1 have now noticed every thing in the review that seems to
me entitled to attention, or likely to mislead the young chemist.
I shall conclude by observing that in my late work [ have given
747 sets of experiments, most of them analyses, a considerable
proportion of which are new, and all were performed in the
College laboratory of Glasgow, either by myself or my pupils
under my immediate directions and superintendence. A very
considerable proportion of these analyses were repeated many
times before I felt satisfied with the result. This labour, the
greatest hitherto undertaken by any individual chemist, occu-
pied the whole of my attention for five years, during the greatest
part of which time I was as assiduously employed as any journey-
man in Glasgow. Now let us sum up the result of Dr. Ure’s
animadversions. He affirms (without assigning any reason for
his statement) that three of my analyses are erroneous, that three
are fictitious, and that I have stolen three from his own imma-
culate publications. Now were we to grant the truth of this
impudent and most profligate statement, it would still follow,
even by his own showing, that 735 of my analyses are perfectly

accurate.

ArticLe II.
On the Origin of Ergot. By General Martin Field.*

As to the origin and nature of ergot, various opinions and
theories have been adopted; but the three following have
appeared the most plausible, and have been the most strenuously
supported. First: among the French, Tissot and others affirm,
“ that ergot, or spurred rye, is such as suffers an irregular vege-
tation in the middle substance between the grain and the leaf,
producing an excrescence ;” and that this morbid change is
produced by the extremes of humidity and heat of the season.

Second: In England it has been the opinion of some, “ that
ergot is an excrescence, caused by the sting and deposition of
the egos of an insect.”

And third: Others affirm, “ that it is a parasitic Fungus, like
the different sorts of blight, smut, &c.”

[ shall not attempt to support or oppose either of the opinions
above-mentioned; but shall relate such facts as have fallen
under my view, without regard to any theory upon the subject.

The field of rye in which I made my observations was within
fifty yards of my house, which afforded me an opportunity of

* American Journal ef Science.

1826.] the Origin of Ergot. 15

examining it daily for many weeks. It was of that species,
which, in this part of the country, is usually denominated the
Norway or White Rye, and which has ever been observed to be
far more productive of ergot than the English spring rye, or that
which -is said to be a native of the island of Candia. But itis not
recollected, that during any former season, the ergot has been
found so abundant, in this vicinity, as during the last.

The Norway rye is in blossom about as early im the season as
the English spring rye ; but is two weeks later at harvest. From
this circumstance, one reason may be assigned, why the former
isso much more productive of ergot, than the latter. The longer
the grain continues in the pulpy or milky state, the more favour-
able is the opportunity presented for the operation of the cause
which produces the ergot. That such is the fact, experience
clearly demonstrates.

The field of rye which I very frequently examined, was in full
blossom about the 30th of June; but I discovered no appear-
ances of ergot till the 22dofJuly. From that time, until the
12th of August, when the rye was harvested, it might be found
of various dimensions. Upon minute examination, J discovered
that every grain of ergot, as it emerged from the glume, had
attached to its apex the shrivelled zind of a grain of rye, which
had the appearance of once being in a healthy state. This led
me to conjecture that a diseased state of the rye was the primary
cause of the ergot. To ascertain the fact, I repaired to the rye-
field, where I discovered groups of flies collected upon the heads
of rye, apparently in the pursuit of something within the glume.
On opening the valve of the glume, where the flies were thus
collected, 1 found the saccharine juice of the grains of rye was
oozing out, and would soon produce small drops. I was then
convinced that it was this saccharine fluid which was so inviting
to the multitude of flies that collected upon those heads of rye,
which contained any diseased grains. Having collected.a num-
ber of grains, of full-grown size, and exhibiting appearances
similar to those above described, I placed the same under a
microscope, by which I could clearly discover a small orifice in
each, near the end opposite to that to which the thread of nutri- -
tion had been attached. I could also discover the juice of the
grain was still discharging from the orifice.

On the morning of the first of August, by observing the
groups of flies, [ found two heads of rye near each other, and
each of which contained a grain of punctured or diseased rye.
The culms IJ tied to a stake, drove between them, the better to
enable me again to find them, and to observe their future
appearances. At that time the punctured grains exhibited no
symptoms of decay, otherwise than a small discharge of fluid.
During the first day, the flies were busily employed in extracting
their delicious beverage from the orifice of each grain, and when
it did not flow in sufficient quantity for their supply, they would

16 General Martin Field on [Jan.

pres it anew. On the 2d of August both grains appeared to
e in a state of fermentation, and rapidly tending to decay. On
the 3d, being forty-eight hours from the time when I commenced
my observations, each grain had become a rotten and shapeless
mass, and exhibited very little appearance of healthy rye. Then
on carefully opening the valves of the glume, I discovered in
each a small black globule, the size of which was rather larger
than a pin’s head. These were situate at the points of the
peduncles of the diseased grains, which afterwards proved to be
ergot. During the first four days after the ergot was discovered,
they grew in length very near two lines in each 24 hours, dis-
placing the remains of the diseased rye from the glumes which
they had occupied. On the 12th of August, the ergot had
attained its full growth. The dimensions of one grain of ergot
were 12 lines in length, and three lines in diameter. The other
grain measured a little less.

On the 3d of August, being convinced that the primary cause
of ergot was the puncture of the healthy grain by the fly, it
occurred to me that perhaps it might be produced by such means
as I possessed. To ascertain this fact, with the point of a fine
needle | punctured four grains of rye, in the same head, it then
being in a green pulpy state, and of full grown size. A discharge
of the juice of the grains was soon discovered from the orifice of
each. The flies collected as in those cases before mentioned,
The result was, that on the fourth day after the operation was
performed, ergot appeared in the glume, occupying the places
of two of the punctured grains. The other two grains exhibited
no symptoms of decay, but continued in a healthy state. From
appearances, I am led to believe that in warm dry weather many
grains of rye are punctured, which are not materially injured
thereby. The orifice closes before a sufficient quantity of juice
has escaped to produce fermentation and decay. This may,
therefore, be assigned as one reason why cloudy and wet seasons
are so much more productive of ergot than those which are fair
and dry.

Under a good microscope, I occasionally examined the ergot,
and also the grains of rye, in every stage of decay, but was never
able to discover in either the eggs or darve of any insect. I,
therefore, conclude that the puncture of the fly is for the purpose
of extracting its food from the rye, and not for the deposition
of its eges.

The fly is of the hairy or bristly species of Musca, and also a
species of the “blow fly.” It deposits its eggs upon animal
flesh, either fresh or putrid. Its wings are transparent, abdo-
men dark green, larger than the common house fly; in this
climate, in the months of July, August, and September, the
most numerous species of the fly, and very annoying to horses,
oxen, and some other animals.

The above statement contains all the material facts which

1826.] the Origin of Ergot. 17

liave fallen under my view, in relation to the cause of ergot; and
how far they go to support or oppose either of the theories here-
tofore adopted upon the subject, I submit to the decision of
others.

In the conclusion of this article, perhaps it may not be impro-
per to state some facts in relation to the effect which the ergot
produces upon the health of the plant on which it grows. Iwas
never able to discover that the culm of rye was in the least
affected by the ergot; but I have observed that invariably
where there were to the number of eight or ten grains of ergot,
no healthy or sound rye could be found in the same head. In
such cases it appears that all the nourishment which the culm
affords is exhausted by the ergot, and the rye suffers a severe
blight.

The size of the ergot is usually in proportion to the number of
grains in the same head. For when we find but one grain in a
rye-head, it is generally from 10 to 14 lines in length, and two
or three in diameter; but where there are from 25 to 30 grains,
which is not unfrequent, their dimensions are proportionably
less, being often not greater than sound rye.

Articie III.
Analysis of ihe Ore of Iridium. By T. Thomson, MD. FRS.

In a paper inserted by Dr. Wollaston in the Philosophical
Transactions for 1805, he gives an account of an ore of iridium
which is intermixed with the grains of crude platinum, and which
remains unacted upon after the platinum has been dissolved in
nitro-muriatic acid. He picked out a number of these grains,
and gave an account of some of their most remarkable proper-
ties. They have a foliated texture, a peculiar lustre, are brittle,
and have a specific gravity of 19:5; thus constituting the
heaviest body hitherto discovered in nature. Dr. Wollaston
informs us that by analysis he could detect in it nothing but
iridium and osmium. He selected a portion of this ore, and
gave it to the late Mr. Smithson Tennant, requesting him to
make an exact analysis of it.

_ Unfortunately this amiable and highly ingenious man was cut
off by a most melancholy accident before he had found leisure
to execute the projected analysis. J had received a quantity of
the same ore from Dr. Wollaston many years ago; but as I
considered the investigation of the metals in crude platinum as
in some measure forbidden ground, I was unwilling to obtrude
upon it while there was any reason to expect that Dr. Wollaston
himself might be prevailed upon to undertake a task which he
was so much better qualified for than any other person. But as

New Series, vou. Xt. c

18 , Dr. Thomson's Analysis of [JAn.

twenty years have elapsed without any thing having been added
to our knowledge of this ore, I was induced to attempt the.
-analysis of it on the supposition that it was likely to throw some
light upon the atomic weight of osmium, which I had tried in
vain to determine by other methods.

After some preliminary experiments, I found the most success-
ful method of proceeding was to heat the ore with a mixture of
caustic potash and nitre. A platinum crucible could not: be
employed, because at the heat which I found it necessary to
use, the crucible was sensibly corroded. I tried green glass’
vessels with no better success; and at last made choice of a:
silver crucible, which, when the quantity of saltpetre was not
too great, was not sensibly acted on ata red heat.

Ten grains of very pure plates of ore of iridium were heated
in a silver crucible over a Jamp in a mixture consisting of about
50 grains of potash and 20 of saltpetre, and kept for about
half an hour ina heat approaching to redness, and ultimately.
quite red. The potash and nitre soon fused; and became quite
black and opaque. When all action seemed at an end, the
process was stopped, water was poured into the crucible, and.
the whole potash and nitre washed out. An opaque liquid was
thus obtained, which, when left for 24 hours, deposited a number
of black flocks. The residual liquid had an olive-green colour.
When heated, it deposited some more black flocks, and became
colourless. It had a strong smell of osmium.

The residual ore of iridium was black on the surface ; but
being digested. for 24 hours in muriatic acid, it assumed the
metallic lustre as ‘at first. The muriatic acid liquid remained
transparent; but had acquired a reddish brown colour. The
ore of iridium by these two processes was reduced to 7:35 grs.

- Being again heated with potash and nitre, and afterwards
digested in muriatic acid, it was reduced to 6:37 grains.

After being subjected a third time to this treatment, it was
reduced to 4:45 grains.

A fourth heating with potash and digestion in muriatic acid
reduced it to 2°78 grains.

A fifth to 2°3 grains.

A sixth to 1°5 grain.

A seventh to 1:18 grain.

This small residue had the metallic lustre, and exactly the
characters of the original one. I, therefore’, stopped the process
here. If we subtract the 1:18 grain of residue from the 10
grains taken, there will remain 8:82 grains for the quantity
actually subjected to analysis.

All the potash solutions were collected together and boiled in
a flask till they became limpid and colourless. Osmium was
given out, and a black flocky precipitate fell, which, being
collected and dried on the filter, weighed 5:4 grains.

1826.] the Ore of Iridium. 19

This black deposit was light and bulky. When exposed to
the heat of 4 spirit-lamp in a small porcelain crucible, it took
fire, and burnt for an instant, owing, I suspect, to some small
vegetable matter from the filter being mixed with it. It retained
its black colour after having been exposed to a strong red heat,
but the weight was reduced to 4°765 grains. When this powder
was digested in nitro-muriatic acid, a red solution was obtained,
which became colourless by the addition of gallic acid, and
could not be precipitated by the action of any reagent tried.
Hence it was iridium. A complete solution of the black powder
could not be effected by nitro-muriatic acid, showing that the
iridium was in the metallic state.

The muriatic acid solutions being collected together and
evaporated to dryness, left a black matter weighing 3:3 grains ;
but reduced by exposure to a strong red heat to 1°89 grain.
This portion had been united to the 4765 grains of indium
obtained from the potash, and the whole was digested for a
week on the sand-bath in muriatic acid. The red-coloured
liquid became colourless when ammonia was added to it in
excess ; but a slight flocky precipitate fell which had a brown
colour, and weighed, after being dried in a red heat, 0°33 grain.
This matter dissolved in muriatic acid. The solution was
reddish yellow, and struck a deep blue with prussiate of potash.
Hence the flocks were peroxide of iron, equivalent to 0:23 grain
of metallic iron. The colourless solution thus freed from iron
being evaporated to dryness, and redissolved, assumed its
Sak ae red colour.

hus from 8°82 grains of ore of iridium were obtained,

MEIGRUED Hild y cle lelts 6.06 6%. sicge) OM4G.08 (C2

POMS G op iaieie, Sina dove dad's wae Od OTF
Loss (obviously osmium)..... 2°16 2°51
8°82

T have shown in a late work that the atomic weight of iridium
is 3°75. We see from the preceding analysis, which I had the
patience to perform twice, notwithstanding the tediousness of
the manipulations, that the ore of iridium (abstracting the iron,
which is probably only accidentally present) is composed of three
parts iridium and one part osmium. If we consider it as a
compound of two atoms iridium and one atom osmium, the atom
of osmium will be 2:5. If it be a compound of one atom of each
constituent, the atom of osmium will be 1°25, or the same as the
atom of fluoric acid. We have not data at present to determine
which of these suppositions is the true one. I shall, therefore,
make choice of the first number provisionally till we have it in
our power to determine the point with more accuracy.

i

20 Mr. Harvey on Naval Architecture. (Jan.

") . : tid

Artic.e IV. Mi
On Naval Architecture. By George Harvey, Esq. FRS. L.& E.
(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)

GENTLEMEN, Plymouth, Nov. 5, 1825.

' No better method, perhaps, can be adopted for benefitting
naval architecture in its present state, than by making it ocea-
sionally the subject of friendly discussion in our philosophical
journals; of freely stating what are its wants and defects; what
points require elucidation; which of its elementary principles
are involved in obscurity; and what ought to be the means
employed to carry it to that pitch of perfection its ardent and
eager cultivators desire.

Without meaning to cast the slightest reflection on those who
have preceded us in the cultivation of this interesting and
is oa art, it ought freely to be admitted that much remains
to be done for its improvement; and that as every nation almost
is aiming more or less at a maritime character, and that we haye
around us so many countries jealous of our national superiority,
of our wealth and commercial prosperity, and of all those advan-
tages which so pre-eminently distinguish Britain above every
other nation, it behoves us as individuals, and collectively as a
nation, to spare no pains in giving to our naval and commercial
marine every degree of perfection of which they are susceptible.

The plan suggested by Mr. Major in the Annals of Philosophy
for November, is one well calculated to awaken attention; and
though the undertaking may at first view appear too wide and
extended to be attempted in all the generality proposed, yet if
the best ships of each class were selected, and due consideration
used, to free it in its execution from those difficulties and
embarrassments which sometimes so unexpectedly arise to

mpede the experimenter, the most important consequences to
naval architecture might be reasonably anticipated from it. A
digest of the British navy, which should embrace only the
elements proposed by Mr. Major, properly methodized and
arranged, would form a body of knowledge of so important and
peculiar a kind, that it would be difficult to estimate its value.
‘To me, I am free to confess, the idea is new; nor in my estima-
tion is novelty the most important of its characteristics. It
is, in truth, carrying at once into the very heart of ship-building
that spirit of genuine induction which, in so many other branches
of knowledge, has produced such mighty consequences; nor do
I know of any one thing so likely at the present moment to
increase our stock of information respecting this useful art as
the scheme now proposed for consideration.

1826.) Mr. Harvey on Naval Architecture. 21

We have mutch to learn respecting ship-building. We ought
certainly to know every thing capable of being known respecting
it; and much might be gained by experiments founded on a
philosophical basis. It would be of great importance, for
example, to have precise and definite notions respecting the
plane of floatation; how that plane is connected with the mid-
ship section; and how the two are related to the sailing qualities
of the vessel of which they form a part. In lke manner, it
would be. advantageous to have correct and accurate ideas
respecting the positions of the centres of gravity of the entire
vessel and of its displacement ; and to know how these points
are related to each other, in a given number of approved experi-
ments. Is there indeed a single element connected with naval
architecture which in the present state of our knowledge it is
not desirable to improve ?

Let us inquire for a moment how we obtain information in
other cases ; how the philosopher works in his difficult investi-
gations ; and what are the instruments and means employed by
him when tracing the hidden mysteries of nature. Are they not
experiment,—observation,—a careful watching after resemblances
and relations of every kind? Does he not analyze every principle,
separate every part, and in the end collect into general and
connected laws the individual results which his sagacity has
discovered? Just so ought it to be in the pursuit of naval archi-
tecture; for there are about that subject, elements of a very
peculiar kind whose individual properties and collective laws it
is of the highest importance to determine. Much may indeed
be said about theory ; but pure theory has yet done little for
ship-building. What we want is a theory founded on the basis
of experiment and observation; and as 1 have remarked on
another occasion, without it.‘ all is darkness and uncertainty.”*
The first mathematician in Europe may speculate for ever on
the forms of floating bodies; he may dazzle his imagination
with his ideal creatioas; he may multiply his analytical combi-
nations, and pile his highest orders of integrals on each other ;
and yet, when called upon to make his practical applications,
his formule almost lose their identity, and all his golden specu-
lations yanish. But place in the bands of such a man a well-
digested body of experimental results; show him how, in
‘humerous instances, one property of a vessel has been invariably
connected with another: give to him those constants which are
to link together the disjointed elements of his problem ; furnish
him with experimental data on which he can depend, and from
which he can with confidence draw such results as his growing
investigations require ; and we shall find in the end a striking
contrast to his former results. The data supplied to him will

* Annals of Philosophy, vol. viii, p. 445, New Series,

92 Mr. Harvey on Naval Architecture. ‘Jan.

have disclosed relations never before anticipated, and conclu-
sions never before imagined. Thus would naval architecture be
benefitted ; and an art, which, it is not too much to say, is of the
very first importance for the British nation to cultivate and
encourage, would be freed from the trammels of uncertain and
antiquated rules, and placed on a basis better suited to its
dignity and value.

I have one word, however, to say on resistances—a subject
which I contend it is of very great importance for our naval
constructors to be acquainted with. It 1s no argument because
the labours of the French Academicians, and of the Society for
the Promotion of Naval Architecture, have not produced all
that practical benefit which might have been anticipated from
their high talents, and the unwearied assiduity with which the
subject was prosecuted by them, that therefore no better infor-
mation could be derived from a course of experiments on some
other plan. Rather should such difficulties and obstacles
operate as a stimulus to new exertions; to inquiries why so
much apparently well-directed labour should have produced so
little that is of practical value, and not in hopeless despair
abandon an inquiry because our predecessors achieved not all
we desire.

Finally, it is much to be desired that we should be furnished,
before the inquiry is undertaken, with a table of the principal
elements which such an investigation as that under consideration
ought to embrace, arranged in the order best adapted to the
relations they bear to each other. A methodical statement of
our actual wants in the first place would be one step towards
their attainment ; and no better method, perhaps, can for the
present be devised, than arranging the objects desired in
tabular and systematic forms. Nor should those forms embrace
merely the ultimate results of the elements required, but the
necessary and essential steps on which the respective elements
depend. This plan of tabulating the steps and results of our
inquiries is one of very great importance in the present state of
the sciences, since it exhibits at once what are our actual
possessions, and what further aid we require to lead them
onwards to perfection. The advantages of this method of con-
ducting investigations are now beginning to be felt, and, as
knowledge and the useful arts extend, it will become more and
more necessary.

.1826.] M. Berzelius on some Mineral Species. 23

a

_

ARTICLE V.

‘Observations on some Mineral Species. Extracted froma Letter
of M. Berzelius to M. Alexander Brogniart.*

Stockholm, Marck 15, 1825.

My labours during the last winter have been sometimes
devoted to mineralogical subjects. [ think I have already
informed you that the mineral so similar to zircon, which
M. Tank showed us at Christiania, and in which I found phos-
-phoric acid by means of the blowpipe, is a phosphate of Bonet
We also observed another mineral found in the sienite of Frede-
ricwern, black, very brilliant, and formed of small rectangular
prisms. I have analyzed it, and found in it oxide of titanium,
zirconia, yttria, lime, the protoxides of iron, manganese, and
cerium, and traces of the oxide of tin, potash, silica, and
magnesia. I have named it Polymignite, from the multiplicity
ofits elements. The Levyne sent me by Dr. Brewster is abso-
lutely nothing more than chabasie, in which a portion of the
lime is replaced by soda. The meso/a which I analyzed, and
named somewhere in Brewster’s Journal, is in the same predica-
sMent; it is merely a chabasie rich in soda.

I have analyzed the last portion that I had left of the mineral
containing Thorina. I found in it phosphoric acid, united to
oxide of cerium and yttria; and I have discovered that this
pretended earth is nothing else but a sub-phosphate of yttria.
One element, therefore, must be erased from the catalogue.

Ihave examined two arseniates of iron, one from Vilia-Ricca,
in Brasil, the other from Wurfelerz. I find the formula of the

first = Fe As + 2Fe As + 12 Aq. That is to say, it is a
neutral arseniate of the protoxide, in which two-thirds of the
latter are converted into deutoxide. (C’est-d-dire, que c’est
Varséniate neutre du protoxide, dans lequel deux tiers de celui-ci
sont convertis en deutoxide.) The formula of the wurfelerz is

Fe® As? + 2 Fe? As? + 36 Aq. It is the common sub-arseniate
of the protoxide, in which two-thirds of the protoxide are con-
verted into deutoxide.}
The scorodite of Saxony is not identical with either of these
two arsemiates. We, therefore, know three different native
arseniates of iron. This analytical labour has led me to revise

* From the Annales des Sciences Naturelles,
+ Contrary to our usual custom, we have copied the symbols of the original text, not
from any late conviction of their utility, but lest, by endeavouring to translate them
_ into common language, we might fall into error. What a sub-arseniate of a protoxide,

0 Sie - which consist of deutowide, may be, we are somewhat puzzled to compre-
End Lidl,

24 Rev. Mr. Emmett on. | [Jax.

all the analyses of the native phosphates and arseniates that we
possess, from which it follows that a metal may give with each
of those two acids no less than eleven different salts. Mine-
ralogy presents us with nine different modes of combination, and
the remaining two are very common in our laboratories.

In an old memoir on a particular species of tantalite from
Finland, the specific gravity of which much exceeded that of the
other species, and whose powder had a bright cinnamon colour,
I had determined it to be a tantaliuret of iron (not oxidated)
mixed with'a small portion of tantaliate of oxidulous irony): The
new experiments which I have lately made on tantalium prove
that what I formerly considered as metallic tantalium, isin fact
an oxide of that metal which I have since learnt how to reduce
completely. We thus have two.tantalites in Finland, one of
which is the neutral tantalite of the protoxides of iron and
manganese, and the other a compound of the protoxide of iron
and protoxide of tantalium. vied

M. Mosander has been engaged in the analysis of the white
serpentine, which we discovered at Gullsjo, on our visit to that
place. You will find the formula in the systematic enumeration.
This, stone contains besides a little strontita,

M. Walmstedt has communicated tothe Academy of Sciences
along work on Peridot; from which it follows that the formula

On
Athan

is vais He found no lime in that mineral.

ArrTicLe VI, “
On finding the Longitude at Sea. By the Rev. J. B. Emmett.

(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)
GENTLEMEN, Great Ouseburn, Nov. 23, 1825.

On account of the importance of the subject, various expe-
dients have been devised. Of those which are perfectly just in
theory, few can be employed on account of the peculiar circum-
stances in which the mariner is placed. Notwithstanding the
number of plans that have been adopted, and the great excel-
lency of many of them, the problem has been but imperfectly
solved, and perhaps no very great improvement can be expected.
However, whatever tends to increase the accuracy of the
methods now in use, or to facilitate their application, must be
considered important both in a scientific and commercial point
of view.

The lunar method, although less accurate than some others, is
that on which the mariner must chiefly rely; it is used in our
navy, and on board the East India ships ; it gives good practical

1826.) Jinding the Longitude at Sea. 35

results; but since the computation is tedious, and since some
skill in observing, as well as in the use of nautical tables, is
required, it is rarely adopted by the masters of merchant vessels:
indeed the merchant service is left without any ready means of
determining the longitude; it is deduced from the reckoning
-which depends upon the log only, and the longitude is erroneous
frequently as much as 2°, 3°, or even 4°; and doubtless these
errors occasion the loss of many lives and much property.

‘Itis to be regretted that the owners of ships do not pay more
attention to the instruments which are to guide their property,
and many of their fellow creatures, during long and hazardous
voyages ; frequently the only instrument carried out, besides
the compasses, is an octant, with plain sights ; these are usually
‘80 carelessly fitted up by country workmen, that I have detected
a very considerable index error, which was not noticed, nor
known to exist, either by the workman or the master of the ship.
So long as such instruments are employed, neither can the lunar
method nor the chronometer be of any use ; frequently these
‘octants are fitted up without a tangent screw ; and of these, in
very common use, there are very many on which reliance cannot
be placed nearer than two or three minutes. In the adjustment
either in estimating or removing the index error, I have seen the
‘workman observe any object, as a chimney corner, not 50 yards
off;and with the great error which so crude an observation
introduces, the instrument has been taken to sea as perfect.

The object of the present paper is to propose a more accurate
measure of a lunar distance than can be taken with any sextant ;
to register the corrections of every possible distance, and under
-all circumstances, in tables, whereby all the labour of computa-
tion will be taken out of the hands of the master of a merchant
ship, and the longitude will be found certainly within 30’ of a
great circle; while the more scientific mariner will obtain more
accurate results by directly working out every observation.

The lunar method is never employed in the merchant service,
because the computation is long and tedious, and the masters of
these vessels are seldom able to apply logarithmic tables : who-
ever will take the trouble to work out an example will find it
occupy more time than the masters of ships in general can
spare, and besides they are seldom possessed of sufficient
knowledge. The sextant is so imperfect an instrument, that
there is room for very considerable improvement ; it is certainly
a@ most convenient and valuable nautical instrument; but when
the sun or moon is viewed, the image is fringed, on account of
the passage of the light obliquely through the mirrors, whence
two equally good observers will take different measures of the same
angle. The radius of the instrument is too small to admit of
any great accuracy ; for on account of the principle of the instru-
ment, it is equivalent to one which does not depend on the

26 » Rev. Mr. Emmett on (Jan.

reflecting principle of half the radius; if then its radius be nine
inches, it is equivalent to an instrument of 4+ inches radius,
which is not on the reflecting principle. The greatest defect of
the sextant, except it be constructed on Sir I. Newton’s principle,
which is decidedly the best, arises from the very low power of
the telescope which is applied to it. The aperture of the tele-
‘scope never exceeds one-half or three-fourths of aninch, and the
ower is generally about five or seven times. Now it is well
olin to all practical astronomers, that when the aperture of a
telescope is very much reduced, the inflected light causes great
indistinctness ; small as is the aperture of the telescope, half of
it only receives the rays which emanate from each object ; the
inflection which takes place at the termination of the silvered
part of the horizon glass, and about the cell which includes the
object glass of the telescope, renders the vision indistinct. Also
the rays proceeding from one object suffer two reflections, and
those from the other pass through a thick plate of glass placed
obliquely ; the consequence of this, and the very small aperture
used, is, that the field of view is so dark, that stars are observed
with great difficulty, and the horizon cannot often be seen in
the night. Although the telescope may magnify. six times, in
which case an angle of 10’ will be just visible, ] know from my
_own experience, and the testimony of others well versed in these
matters, that on account of the darkness of the field of view in
the night time, and the fringes attached to the objects viewed,
a measure, correct to a minute, is a very good one.
- What I have already stated will justify an attempt to render
the lunar method more accurate, and to furnish the masters of
merchant vessels with a method which shall remove all the diffi-
culties which at present exist in working out the observations.
During a voyage to St. Helena, the great astronomer Dr.
Halley proved that a telescope of five or six feet long might be
easily managed in moderate weather, and that occultations of
the fixed stars and planets might be observed; hence he pro-
posed occultations to be used for finding the longitude; and
since telescopes, magnifying 20 or 30 times, are now constantly
used at sea, | do not anticipate any objection to instruments of
the like power; those which Dr. H. proved might be used,
magnified much more. A more correct value of the longitude
cannot be obtained than that deduced from an occultation, and
itis to be regretted that they have not been more generally used,
and that so few have been noticed in the Nautical Almanac; for
they happen so frequently, that even with the aid of a good
watch, the longitude might always be known to half a degree;
and by them the rate of a chronometer may always be ascer-
tained.
Instead of measuring the moon’s distance from a star when
that distance is great, 1 propose the use of a refracting telescope,

-1826.] Jinding the Longitude at Sea. 927

‘having a divided object or eye glass micrometer ; the latter will
resemble the ‘‘ Coming up glass,” invented, I think, by Jones.
With this instrument I propose to measure the moon’s distance
from a star, when this distance does not exceed 2°, or 2° 30’.
The advantages of this method are, that the distance will be
much more correctly measured than by any sextant (Dr. Halley
has proved that a telescope of sufficient power may be used, and
instruments of adequate power are daily employed at sea); and
the limits of the observations are such, that the correction to be
applied to the observed, to reduce it to the true distance, may
be registered in tables of short compass in every case, which
will take out of the hands of the most ignorant master of a shi
all the labour and uncertainty of the calculation, and enable him
to ascertain his longitude certainly to halfa degree ; whereas at
present he is uncertain to 3° or 4°, owing to which there is a
serious loss of both life and property. The observation will be
better taken than by the sextant, because neither the magnify-
ing power nor light of the telescope is limited, and the images
are as well defined as in any telescope.

This method is peculiarly adapted to the merchant service,
because the observation is easily made, and the whole calcula-
tion will be limited to two or three common rule-of-three state-
ments. The data or principles on which the tables will be con-
structed are as follows :—Let Z be the zenith, M the apparent
place of the moon, S that of the star. By a sextant, or other
proper instrument, measure the altitudes of the two bodies;
from the zenith, and through the moon and star, pass two sreat
circles; Z M = 90°— )’s apparent altitude; ZS= 90° — x’s
apparent altitude ; correct the apparent altitude of the moon for
refraction and parallax; then Z m= 90° — )’s true altitude ;
correct the stars for refraction, and Z s = 90° — ’s true alti-
tude. SM is the apparent distance, measured by the telescope
and micrometer; and s m is the true distance which is required.
Therefore in the spherical triangle ZS M, the three sides are
known by measurement, and the angle Z is first required ; log.

cos. 2 = £{ log. cosec. ZS + log. cosec.
ZM + log. sn. t{ZS4+Z2M+S Mi +
log. sin. 31 {SZ + ZM + SM}—SM} i
Refraction and parallax take place entirely
in vertical circles ; refraction depends upon

the apparent altitude only ; and although it
requires a correction for the thermometer = s

“N

and barometer, it may be neglected on
account of its minuteness; however, when tes
‘the observer has ability and leisure, since

most large vessels are provided with a é ;
warine barometer (and none should be unprovided with one,

28 Rev. Mr. Emmett on | (Jan.

because jit gives indications of a gale considerably, before its
arrival), the correction may be ately applied, and will add to
the accuracy of the observation. But in general the common
tables of refraction and parallax will suffice. ti

» Having applied the corrections, and found the angle Z, which
angle is not altered by the corrections, the next step is to find
the are s m; and the difference, viz.sm—S M,orS M — sm,
is the quantity to be registered in the tables, and which is to be
added to or subtracted from S M, the measured distance, to
reduce itto the true. Inthe spherical triangle, Z s m, Zs, Zm,
and Z Z, are given; s mis required. To the nat. v sin. of the
difference of the sides, add the number

corresponding to the log. v sin. of the angle be

z + log. sin. Z m + log. sin. Zs; the sum
as the nat. v sin. sm. These are the data on
which I mean to construct the tables.

Let ZM be a zenith distance of the
moon, the distance MS being about one-
fourth part less than the diameter of the
field of view of the telescope; with radius
MS, and from M, describe a small circle
SSS’. Suppose MS = 2°; 28” =
ZM.— 2°, and ZS = ZM + 2°; and
the other values of ZS, ZS’, ZS”, are
intermediate; to wit, ZS’’= ZM—MS§;
ZS=ZM— Z8410'; Z’=ZM—ZS
+ 20’, &c. For all these cases, the cor-
rection will be registered, which, added to or subtracted from
MS, will reduce it to the true distance, or clear it from the
effects of refraction and parallax. Diminish M § by 15’, Z M
and ZS having the same values as before; and calculate the
corrections until by continually subtracting 15’, M S becomes
equal to the moon’s semidiameter. The following is a specimen
of two pages of the tables.

Pagel. Z M=5°. Page 2. Z M=6°.
Values of S M. ZS Values of S M.
15’ | 20’ | 30'| 40’ |&e. to 2°0'|} ©” | 15’ | 20’) 30| 40! |&c. to 2° 0
ee, Sea cin RR 4 00) -e|—F)
ioe Sal |) vipat conti gtiye ARTE Sys Na
‘TEae Aa. a Doe ees 6-0 eh 9 ET Wen vt even icin
ee ee ee ee ee
2 aia Sos wane |Ortoe'7 ene Sone Weel Co's ome
Sr ae on aioe &c. to Viapaar Foc [Fs vifaed
0 th tab rosh an lot Viol S00) belopmb chow Hp

1826.] - Jinding the Longitude at Sea. 29

' At the head of each page stands a value of Z M, which com-
mences at 5°, and increases by 1° in each page to 75°; the horie
zontal column contains values of S M, beginning at 15’, next 20’,
next 30’, as far as 2°; the lateral column contains values of
ZS; the first is Z M—2°, the last = ZM + 2°; the intervals
are 10’: in the spaces where the values of S Mand ZS meet,
will be inserted the correction of the apparent distance, with its
proper sign ; thus required the correction, when

ZM = 5° 0/
SM=0 20
a fe 9

In the space where the correction will be inserted, is found

If the numbers be between those inserted in the tables, the
correction is found by a simple proportion: suppose ZM = 6°,
ZS =8°,S M=17’; 5’: 2’ :: l—m : the proportional part to
be applied to ¢, Beyond two or three such proportions, there
will be no computation required. The tables will not give so
very minutely accurate results as the direct solution of every
case; but their deviation will never exceed 30‘; I may safely
say, 15’ of longitude. The parallax used in finding the tabulated
corrections will be the mean; when, therefore, the proper
correction is found, say mean parallax : true parallax :: tabu-
lated correction : true correction.

A short subsidiary table may be constructed to make the
correction for variations in the parallax more accurately, or it
may be joined to the larger table, inserted between its columns.

The tables will contain only 70 pages; viz. from 5° of zenith
distance to 75°: in each horizontal line will. be 12 spaces, or
values of S M; and in each vertical column 25 values of Z Sz
' There are about 54 zodiacal stars sufficienjly bright for the

urpose; in this list are only nine of the 3.4 and 4.3 magnitude;
all the rest, viz. 45, are 1.2, or 3. Stars of 3.4, 4.3, and even
lower magnitude, may be readily observed. When close to the
moon, by a telescope of moderate aperture and power; the
common refracting telescope, not achromatic, is the best instru+
ment. With an aerial of 18 feet focal length, varying the aper-
ture from 1:3 to 2-5 inches, and without eye-hole, or any other
addition, to exclude foreign light, I have observed many occul-
tations of stars of the 3.4 and 4.3 magnitude, and even smaller.
With small instruments of the same sort, I see small stars close
to the moon better than with an achromatic of greater aperture.
The telescope of my quadrant is a simple refractor, of 36 inches
focal length, and one inch aperture; that of my transit instru-
ment is an achromatic, 22 inches focus, and 1-4 aperture. With
the former I see small stars better than with the other; indeed
many can be seen through it, which the other does not render

30° Rev. Mr. Emmeit on (JAN.

visible using equal powers. Besides, in these observations, the
simple refractor possesses one great advantage: when the
moon, a bright star, or planet, is in or very near the field of view,
the field is Jess illuminated than that of an achromatic; this
arises partly from the length of tube required, and partly from
the imperfections in the surfaces of the best lenses; no polish
is perfect ; and when a ray of light falls ee upon a lens, a
certain dissipation takes place at its surface: this is much
greater when two or three lenses are combined than when but
one is used; of this any one will be convinced by trying the
experiment upon a single convex lens, and a compound object
glass ; in telescopical observations, the difference here noticed
is very Conspicuous.
When a lunar distance is measured by the method here pro-
osed, on account of the accurate measure obtained by the
divided lens micrometer, the result will serye to rate the chro-
nometer. Implicit reliance cannot be placed upon a chrono-
meter, except means be at hand by which any changes that may
take place in its rate of going can be discovered. hen three
chronometers are used, the results are more certain; but on
account of their great expense, it is desirable to be able to cor-
rect one by celestial observations. The master of a merchant
vessel may avail himself of the advantage by using the tables ;
and since the observations may be made almost daily, an instru-
ment which will not cost a fourth the price of a chronometer will
answer all its purposes: excellent watches, having a compensa-
tion balance, and going fusee, are made for less than 20/.; and
if one of these be rated by a lunar observation, even but once in
a fortnight, it will answer every purpose of a chronometer, which
will cost from 80/. to 120/.; and if reliance be placed upon the
chronometer alone, not less than three must be carried out.
There remains, pne other case of the lunar method of the
greatest value, which has been too much neglected ; that is, an
occultation by the moon. Telescopes of sufficient power are
used atsea ; and Dr. Halley proved, during a St. Helena voyage,
that they may be readily observed in tolerable weather. Were
the occultations and small distances in- Zz,
serted in the Nautical Almanac, or other
Ephemeris, the problem being but one case
of the plan here proposed, the most correct
possible measure of the longitude would
result. As before, let Z be the zenith, M
the centre of the moon, S the star: in the
spherical triangle ZS M, SM is directly
measured by the sextant, while ZS, ZM,
are deduced from the observed altitudes : at
the instant when the star touches the moon’s
limb, as at s; 5M _ analogous to § M, is

1826.] finding the Longitude at Sea. | 31

the moon’s semidiameter, and since this is most correctly known,
the distance of the moon’s centre from the star will be ascer-
tained with greater precision than by any measure: the time,
which is a most important element, will be marked to half a
second. Now apply the corrections ; s s’, the effect of refraction
upon the star; M m, the effect of parallax—refraction upon the
moon ; from which s! m, the true distance, results. Those who
have leisure and skill will find this hitherto neglected method
the most correct possible ; and since an occultation may always
be observed every two or three days, it will be sufficient for
every purpose ; or if taken less frequently, it will serve to rate
the chronometer. For others, tables will be constructed, like
those which have been already proposed. The values of S M
will always be between the greatest and least semidiameters of
the moon, increasing by intervals of 10” or 12”; the maximum
of ZS=ZM + »y’s semidiameter ; its minimum Z M — )y’s
semidiameter for every 3’ or 5’; Z M will increase by intervals
of 3° or 5°, except near the zenith, when they will be 1° each.
The best time for taking the observations will be when the
moon is not very near the full; for then the occultations may be
observed on the dark limb.
Since it is difficult to measure
the altitude of a star, on account
of the excessive darkness of the
field of view of the telescope
applied to the sextant, I shall
here propose asextant, to which
a telescope of any magnitude
may be applied, and with which
stars of even the sixth magni-
tude may be observed ; and with
which the horizon will be dis-
tinctly seen, when the night is
too dark to allow the common
sextant to be used. AB is a
telescope attached to one of the
radii of anoctant or sextant ; FC
the index, which is mounted in
the common way. GH is a plain speculum,
fixed perpendicularly to the index; another
plain speculum, IK, is supported by a strong
arm to the frame of the sextant, and perpendi-
cular to its plane. The disposition of the mirrers
is shown in fig. 2. First, set the mirrors per-
pendicular to the frame, inclining the fixed
mirrcr I K to the axis of the telescope, so that
it may reflect down it a ray L M, the angle
LMB being about 100° or 110°. Bring the

3% Rev. Mr. Emmett on,finding the Longitude at Sea. [IAW

index to 0°, 0’, 0”, and bring the index mirror GH into the:
same plane with the fixed one, | K., Hold the plane of the
instrument perpendicularly to the horizon, and in sucha posi-
tion that the horizon of the sea is received through the telescope.
Let M' be the moon, or a star; move the index till this object is
seen through the telescope. As in the common sextant, the
rays from both objects pass down the axis of the telescope, and
therefore the images are in contact. The advantages are that
the telescope is not limited in size; the mirrors being very near
the object lens, less light is lost than when more remote, as in
the sextants in common use; the images do not suffer the
excessive loss occasioned by two reflexions ; the images are
very bright and very distinct ; the oscillation is half that of the
sextants in common use. There is far less difficulty in finding
small objects than might be supposed ; and stars of even the
sixth magnitude are easily observed. Ifthe circle be completed
it makes an excellent repeating circle ; it is infinitely easier to
find a star with it than with the common repeaters, because
each of the objects must alternately suffer two reflections ; and
upon the proposed plan, the instrument does not require alter-
nate inversions. If a crystal be substituted for one mirror, it
makes an excellent goniometer. Should this form of the sextant
be not approved, the Newtonian may be recommended as having
some great advantages ; a larger and more powerful telescope
may be employed than canbe applied to those in common use, and
can be more permanently secured ; the mirrors are much nearer
to each other and to the telescope: on this account, it gives
brighter and better defined images.

I shall have great pleasure in presenting the requisite appara-
tus to any officer in the navy, and to one in the East India
Company’s service, who will take the trouble of observing with
it during a voyage; requisite calculations and tables will be
provided for their use ; requesting that in return these gentlemen
will furnish me with the observations they make, and compara-
tive results from the chronometer, and the lunars, taken on board
their respective vessels.

Tremain, Gentlemen, yours very truly,
i J.B. Emmett.

>

41826.) On the Measurement of Heights by One Barometer. 33

ArrTIcLE VII.

On the Measurement of Heights by One Barometer, with the
requisite Lables, By Mr. J. Nixon.

(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)

GENTLEMEN, Leeds, Nov. 1825.

Tr is so rare to have at command in the course of a series of
baromeirical observations the uninterrupted co-operation of an
intelligent friend, and so hazardous to the safety of the instru-
ments as well as to the accuracy of the observations, to entrust
them to strangers, that most generally recourse will necessarily
be had, especially by the geologist and botanist, to the less
accurate and more tedious method of ascertaining the altitudes
independent of the observed contemporaneous height of the
barometer at the lower station. To point out such a plan of
operations, and to furnish such tables as, It is presumed, will
insure to the method all the accuracy and facility of which it
may be susceptible, is the proposed object of the present article.

The description of barometer best adapted for the labours of
the geologist, &c. will be that of Sir H. Englefield. The mercu-
rial column should be uniformly bright, perfectly continuous,
and unstudded with air-bubbles, or hazy nebule. The vacuum
above being perfect, a very gradual inclination of the tube will
Suffice to produce a smart blow the moment the column comes
in contact with the summit of the tube ; otherwise the concus-
sion will be dull and nearly inaudible; the mercurial column will
occasionally appear broken or divided, and will rarely measure,
on being disturbed or exposed to a different temperature, pte-
cisely the same corrected height.

The scale, fixed parallel to the tube, should be engine-divided
(not enamelled) into inches and twentieth parts. The vernier
(nonius or index), comprehending a space of 1-2 inch subdivided
into 25 equal parts, is more accurately moved by a milled-head
nut and endless screw than simply by the hand. A brass ring
or hollow cylinder attached to the vernier embraces the tube,
and has its (base, or) under edges perpendicular to the mercurial
- column, and precisely of the height of zero of the vernier,
Barometers furnished with a triangular notch of brass in lieu of
the ring subject the observer to the risk of measuring the
height of the coiumn as affected by parallax.

he scale must be so affixed that its zero may coincide with
the convex surface of the mercury within the ¢ude, the pressure °
being 0. This is effected by raising the scale a quantity equal
to the correction for capillarity subtracted from the neutral point
divided by the capacity plus 1.* The capacity being 1-30th,
* The method given vol. x, p- 170, is not strictly accurate.
New Series, vou. xt, D

34 Mr. Nixon onthe Dan.

divide the neutral point (31 inches) by 30 + 1, and deduct the
capillarity (0°100) from the quotient (1:000). The scale being
elevated by the remainder (0-900), the observed heights will be
proper for calculation without correction for capacity or capil-
larity. When the alteration cannot be made conveniently,
deduct from the observed pressures a constant quantity found as
just indicated.

In narrow tubes the mercury will not move so freely as in
those of larger diameter. On the other hand, as the latter are
more liable to be broken, it will be advisable to make choice of
one with a capacity of about 1-50th or 1-60th.

The thermometer, divided into single degrees of Fahrenheit’s
scale, should be well graduated, having its fixed points accu-
rately laid down. Should the thread of mercury ever appear
divided, the instrument may be rejected as unserviceable. In
observing the height of the thermometer, the eye must be held
perpendicular to the summit of the column, and at a moderate
distance from it.

A light tripod, similar to that of a theodolite, on which to
suspend the barometer, is absolutely indispensable. To the
tripod should be added as an occasional substitute a rod of iron,
nearly of the diameter of the suspension ring of the barometer,
and about 15 inches in length. {t should be turned up a little
at one end, and flattened and pointed at the other, to admit of
its being driven into the seams of rocks, walls, &. On many
occasions a 12-inch telescope, fitted up with adjustable cross-
wires and ground spirit level, will be found to be extremely
useful.

In possession of the requisite instruments, the observer will
naturally inquire, what are the most favourable circumstances as
to pressure, temperature, &c. under which the observations may
be made?

In the first place, as the pressures observed at the base of the
mountain before and after the ascent, serve, together with the
elapsed time, as data whence to obtain hy interpolation the
pressure at the time of the observation on the summit, the most
favourable period as to pressure, will be when the barometer is
stationary, or nearly so, and at its mean height for the place.*
In this favourable condition of the atmosphere, the pressures at
equal altitudes will most probably be equal over a considerable.
extent of country, and the variations at the base in the interval
of the two observations insignificant, and what is of more
importance, and may- rarely occur in opposite circumstances,
sensibly uniform. The horizontal distance of the stations being
inconsiderable, a maximum pressure may be preferable, the

* To the pressure éxpressed in thousandth parts of an inch, add the height in feet of
the place of observation above the sea, which will give the pressure at that level wih
sufficient exactness. The mean pressure at the sea is considered to be 30°000 inches

1826.] Measurement of Heights by One Barometer. 35

density of the air approaching more nearly to that of the
mercury. '

In the second place, as the pressures are very irregular about
sunrise, and sunset, the observations should not commence
before the sun has risen an hour or two, and must termi-
hate when practicable at nearly an equal distance of time
previous to his setting.

As to temperature, cold weather would appear to be most
eligible, the variable correction for humidity being unimportant,
and the density of the air differing less from that of mercury
than at more elevated temperatures. On the other hand, as the
barometrical experiments whence the principal coefficients of
the formula have been derived were made at temperatures some
little above.a mean, it will be most prudent to avail ourselves of

-ealm cloudy days, with the thermometer steadily between 50°

and 60° F.

The observer will consequently avoid as much as possible
low, fluctuating, or rapidly varying pressures; high and espe-
cially changeable winds ; also extremely hot weather, particu-
larly if extraordinarily dry or damp. Cold winds, with a hot
sun, are decidedly objectionable; the difficulty of ascertaining
the true temperature of the mercury, or even that of the air,
being almost insuperable. Extremes of temperature occurring
in the course of the observations are very untoward.

At the level of the sea the heights of the barometer will
remain unchanged under every vicissitude of temperature of the
atmosphere. Stationed on an eminence the mercury will rise
and fall with every accession and diminution of heat affecting

the subjacent stratum of air. Hence the impossibility of ascer-

taining in elevated situations the correct rate of the variation of

the pressure, and the absolute necessity of placing the inferior

barometer, whatever may be the differences of level required to
be measured, in the very lowest situation in the vicinity, in

order to obtain this indispensable datum with the requisite
‘accuracy. In making the consequent calculations, it will also

be necessary tg compute, in the first instance, the altitudes of
the different superior stations above this inferior or reference
station, whence their relative heights may be subsequently
obtained by the mere subtraction of the one trom the other.
When the reference station cannot be conveniently revisited
subsequent to the ascent, a second observation should follow the
first after the lapse of at least half the time required to gain the
summit. Again, on reaching the base of the mountain in some
other direction, or on arriving at some eligible low situation, the
rate of the variation of the pressure may be deduced from two
or more observations made at intervals of an hour or two. By
taking a proper mean of the rate at the two places, the pressure
at the reference station at any given time may be inferred with
p2

36 ' Mr. Nixon on the (Jan.

tolerable accuracy. In order to ascertain the rate of the fall or
rise of the barometer, the pressures must be first reduced to one
‘and the same temperature ; preferably that of the mercury at
the first observation at the reference station.

One datum more is wanting,—the temperature at the base
contemporaneous with that observed at the summit. To recur
to interpolation, as in the case of the pressure, would evidently
be purely conjectural, and most generally incorrect, the
observer being engaged at the upper station in the heat of the
day. A register of the thermometer at brief intervals must
consequently be kept either at the reference station, or some-
where in the immediate vicinity nearly on the same level. The
thermometer being suspended the height of the eye ina northern
aspect, to which the wind may have free access, any one of
moderate capacity (furnished with a watch) will succeed in
noting its indications to the accuracy of at least a degree,
whence the temperature at the base for any given instant may
be readily deduced.

Unfurnished with a similar register, substitute in the calcula-
tion the double of the temperature at the upper station for the
sum of the detached thermometers, and increase the resulting
altitude by the square of 1th part thereof. When the ditfer-
ence of level does nut exceed 36U0 feet, the augmentation may
be found in Table V.

The method of making and registering the observations
remains to be indicated.

The mercury being forced by means of the screw pressing
against the leathern bag of the cistern to within a quarter of an
inch, but on no account to the very summit of the interior of the
‘ tube (which would force part of the mercury through the pores
of the leather), the barometer may be carefully inverted, and
carried, lightly grasped in the hand, with the cistern always
uppermost, at an angle of about 45° with the horizon. It should
be kept at some distance from the body, and, when practicable,
on the shaded side, the suspension end projecting in front,
‘ except on climbing steep acclivities, when it will be more safe
to have it in the rear. On making a halt, avoid placing the
instrument on damp ground, or on rocks exposed to the rays of
the sun.

‘Arrived at the station, erect the tripod, the legs being firmly
fixed in the ground, or rendered steady by piling heavy stones .
around them. A wall, rock, tree, &c. being near the station,
make use of the iron crook in preference to the tripod, and drive
it firmly into the shaded side of the object at: the proper height.
When the situation is open to the direct rays of the sun, or when
the shaded side of the rock, wall, &c. is so much exposed to the
fury of the wind that the crook must be inserted on the sunny
side, it will then be necessary to shade the barometer by one of

1826.] Measurement of Heights by One Barometer. 37

the legs of the tripod ; by the interposition of the body, a pile
of turf, stones, &c.; or by an umbrella properly held by the
guide. In gusty weather the oscillations of the mercurial
column may be checked by surrounding the cistern end with
sods, peats, &c. care being taken to preserve the instrument
vertical. In tempestuous weather it will sometimes be found
impracticable to make use of either tripod or crook. Then let
the observer descend the leeward declivity of the mountain until
the guide gives notice that the bubble of the telescopic level,
pointed at the summit, is stationary in the middle. Mark the
precise spot on which you stood, and continue the descent until
the eye becomes level with the mark. Then by multiplying the
height of the eye by the number of the levellings, the total fall
is ascertained ; and here erect the tripod, or fix the crook.

The summit being an extensive plain, let the observer seat
himself on a rock or bank, and holding the barometer firmly
between his knees, render it perpendicular to some distant
level ridge, or other horizontal plane... The instrument may now
be drawn nearer or made to recede, until the mercury stands at
the lowest, and then will the column be perpendicular to the
horizon.

When the cistern of the barometer does not coincide in
height with the station, but is placed on higher or lower ground,
be careful to register a remark to thet effect. The difference of
level not exceeding five or six feet, one foot answers so nearly
to ‘001 inch of mercury at. any pressure, that it will be suffi-
ciently correct, and more convenient to add to (or deduct from)
the observed height of the barometer :001 inch for every foot it
may be suspended above (or below) the station.

The instrument being securely suspended on the crook or
tripod, unscrew the bag as far as it will admit, and tap the sides
of the barometer pretty freely. After a lapse of fifteen minutes
in cloudy weather; but of double the time when the solar radia~
tion is considerable, draw aside the brass tube concealing the
interior thermometer, &c. and having noted withiu a parenthesis
( ) its correct height, place it in the shade fairly exposed to the
air, but not to a partial current, at the height of five or six feet
from ground that has not been recently exposed to the direct
rays of the sun, and does not appear to be exceptionably damp.

To find the height of the barometer, keep it steadily vertical
with the left hand, and seizing the milled head nut with the right,
gradually lower the cylindrical ring, the eye being continued in
a line with its under edge in front of, and behind the tube, until
the light seen throvgh the narrow slit above the convex summit
of the mercurial column is just excluded. Quitting hold of the
instrument observe that the contact continues good, or repeat
the adjustment. When the instrument is in a narrow glen with
dull objects immediately beyond the slit, fix a sheet of white or

38 Mr. Nixon on the [JAN.

(better) yellow paper behind the barometer, or let the guide
interpose his hand held at the distance of about a foot.

Having completed the adjustment of the rim of the vernier to
the height of the column, note immediately the indication of the
detached thermometer, and the time of observation, adding 12
hours to the times, p.m.

In reading off the pressure, write down first the inches and
tenths the next below the zero of the vernier, to which affix the
remaining fractional parts as indicated by the vernier. Toread
these off correctly, commence at the zero of the latter,—termin
it ‘050 when a twentieth of an inch intervenes between it a
the tenth of an inch already registered,—and count the lines
upwards, calling each ‘002 inch, until one of the lines of the
vernier coincides in height with, or appears to bea prolongation
of, some one of the adjoining lines of the fixed scale of inches.

Having completed the requisite observations at the summit
station, the altitudes of several of the surrounding mountains,
&c. may be determined a‘ter the following method on makin
the descent to the reference station.* Selecting the loftiest of
the objects visible below the apparent horizon, steadily bisect its
summit from time to time with the intersection of the cross wires
of the telescope until the bubble of the level is observed by the
guide to remain in or near the middle, Then fix the tripod for
a support, and continue to alter its height until the bubble of the
telescope resting upon it, and accurately pointed at the object,
remains steadily between the marks. Here suspend the baro-
meter, and make the requisite observations of the pressure,
temperature, &c. allowing for the height of the tripod above the
cistern. With these data, in addition to those obtained at the
reference station, we learn by calculation the elevation in feet
of the level point above the latter. To this difference of level
add the square of the distance, in miles of the observed object,
from the level point multiplied by 0°576 foot,+ and we have the
correct altitude of the object above the level of the reference
station. The telescope being small, and the distance taken
merely from the map, the observations should not extend to
mountains, &c. at a greater distance than eight or ten miles.

In mountainous districts, consisting of rocks regularly stratie
fied under a moderate dip, the depths and inclination of the
principal beds may be ascertained with tolerable precision by
barometrical measurements made in the ravines, beds of torrents,
or on the precipitous declivities of the mountains. The first
object in an undertaking of this description will be to determine
with great care the relative heights of a sufficient number of

* De Luc.
52” 59"

+ = 5280 feet x tang. amd it ). A mile (5280 feet) subtends an are of 52’’;

the refeaction is considered to be 115th of the are,

1826.] Measurement of Heights by One Barometer. 39

reference stations judiciously selected on the banks of the prin-
cipal streams irrigating the district. The absolute elevation of
the upper surfaces of the different strata above the lowest of these
stations being computed from the barometrical observations,
the height of some one of the principal or best identified beds,
at the various places where sections have been measured, may
be marked on a map, accurately laid down on a large scale.
To find the dip, draw the direction line through a number of
section-stations where the stratum is on the same level, or
equally elevated above the lowest reference station, and is at its
maximum height. From the remaining section-stations draw
lines intersecting the direction line at right angles, and measure
the distances in feet on the scale of the map. Dividing the
distance by the difference of altitude of the stratum at the
section-station and at the direction line, we obtain the tabular
tangent of the dip in the vicinity of that section.

As the exactness of the barometrical measurements of the
sections will depend almost entirely on the correct observation
of the height and temperature of the mercurial column, the
observer must so habituate himself to the accurate adjustment
of the ring of the vernier to the proper height that the pressures
may be read off true to 002 or ‘003 inch, To meet the other
more serious difficulty, the observations should be made exclu-
sively in calm cloudy weather, between noon and three, p.m. ata
temperature little differing from the mean annual one.

aving completed the observations at the reference station,
proceed to the torrent, and slowly ascend to the summit, mark-
ing with piles of stones the heights of the planes of contact of
the strata; cautiously avoiding to mistake an accumulation of
bowlders for an alternation of tle beds. When the contact is
indiscernible in the ravine, &c. deviate to the right or left on the
same level, when it will seldom fail to be recognized in a scar,
cliff, &c. or identified by the gushing out of numerous springs at
the same altitude. In most formations, the change of beds is
generally intimated by the varied verdure of the vegetation ; the
appearance of different plants, &c. Descending to the reference
station, suspend the barometer at every pile of stones, noting
its height and that of the interior thermometer, after a lapse of
time, precisely the same at every observation, or about ten
minutes. When the beds are only a few feet in thickness, it
will be better to measure them with the telescopic level, and a
light staff divided into inches, than to recur to the barometer.

Construction of the Tables.

The reduction of the pressures at the reference station to one
temperature, the determination of the rate per hour of the fall or
rise of the barometer, together with the interpolation of the
pressures and temperatures to the times at the summit, present

40 _ Mr. Nixon on the an.

a formidable list of calculations merely preparatory. Indepen-
dent of the objectionable labour, the reductions themselves will
ever be of questionable accuracy ; for should the variation of
the pressure, considered as constant, have been subject to irre-
gularities in the interval of the observations, the interpolations
will most probably be incorrect. This remark, it is true, is
inapplicable to the register of the thermometer, yet when the
altitude has been computed, in default of such register, with
twice the temperature at the upper station considered as the
sum of the thermometers, the given correction will be exact
only when the temperature declines 1° for an ascent of 250 feet.
Hence the probable inutility on the one hand of introducing
minute corrections in the calculations, and the necessity on the
other of forming tables, so constructed after approximative for-
mulz, as to render the computations simple, brief, and easy.

The barometrical observations of Shuckburgh, Roy, and
Ramond, made at ordinary temperatures on mountains, having
on the average an elevation of 3000 feet, coincide in determining
the coefficient or multiplier of the lovarithmic difference of the
pressures to be about 64096 at 60° F. If we suppose the baro-
meter at the base to be 30-000 inches, and the temperature of
the air 65°, we shall have the pressure at the summit equal to
26940 inches, the thermometer indicating about 55°. The
mean of nearly 300 afternoon observations, made by Mr. Daniell
within a thermometric range of from 6U° to 70° (mean 65°) give
the corresponding dew point at 53°. The point of condensation
at the summit may be estimated, according to the experiments
of Mr. Dalton, at 48°. The mean density of the intercepted
column of air would consequently be equal to that of perfectly
dry air of the temperature of 62°7.* Hence the coefficient at the
level of the sea would be equal to 60095 + * = 63939; or,
corrected for the vertical diminution of gravity, 64119. The
result differs so little from 64096, that we are warranted in con-
cluding the coefficient of dry air at 32° F. to be, as inferred from
the experiments of Arago and Biot on the relative weights of
mercury and air, very nearly 60095.

The mean temperature of the stratum of air being 32°, we may
estimate the corresponding dew point at 22°, the density being
in such case equal to dry air at 33°3, for which the coefficient is
60258 at the level of the sea, or 60418 at an altitude of 3000
feet. In the formula of Laplace, it is given at 60345: Roy and

* Lower station 30:00 in. pressure, 65° air, 53° dew point, 2°8 equation.
Upper station 26-94 5 AS 2:6

Mean 60 Meen 2°7
Equation 2:7

62:7 (See Table I. vol. x. p. 177.)

1826.] Measurement of Heights by One Barometer. 41

Shuckburgh estimate it, as might be anticipated from their igno-
rance of the laws of the dilatation, &c. of moist air, considerably”
in error, stating it to be 60000.

Being, however, assured by Laplace that his formula agrees
with the ensemble of the excellent observations of Ramond, we
may venture to adopt it as the basis of the tables. Calling X
the difference of level, H the height of the barometer, T that of
the centigrade thermometer at the lower station, and 4h, ¢, the
analogous quantities at the upper one, the pressures being cor-
rected for difference of temperature of the mercury, the formula

gives
X = 60345 ft. {1 +-002837 cos.2lat.t $147? log. F.

Adapted to the more convenient zero of Fahrenheit’s scale,

the formula becomes
X = 56054 {1+-002837 cos.2 lat.} $14 4° log. 7x
836 h

If we conceive a number of barometers so stationed one above
another that they shall indicate, in an atmosphere uniformly of
the temperature of 0° F. equal differences of pressure of the
value of -01 inch, we may find the perpendicular height of the
upper one A’, standing at 21 inches, above the level of those.
beneath it, by the formula

560654 feet, log... (See Table II.)

The resulting heights with the corresponding pressures from
21-00 to 31:00 inches, being arranged ina table, the difference
of level of any two of the inferior barometers, of which the pres-
sures are given, is obtained by mere subtraction.

The pressures being generally expressed in thousandth parts
of an inch, the value additive in feet of the last figure (from 001
to -009) may be found and tabulated by multiplying it by 24°345
divided by the required pressure. (See Table III.)

* Adopting the Daltonian theory of the constitution of the atmosphere, the correction
for humidity will be very simple. We have but to subtract from the pressures (reduced
to 32° F.) the force of the vapour corresponding to the observed dew point ; and make
the calculation after the following fo:mula for an atmosphere of perfectly dry air, viz.

H-—F T+t R+r
x = log. (———) . 56290. Sitcom Sage) (Le
og. (=>) 56220 . (1 +002837 «cos, 2 Jat.) (1 =u) $14 ; R,
wherein R is the elevation of the lower station, and 7 that of the upper one above the
level of the sea; a, the earth’s radius in feet; F the tension of the vapour at the base ;
and f its force at the summit.
When F isto B as f is to h, the pressure of the atmosphere of vapour on the mercury

does not affect the calculation, and we may use Pa indifferently. The ratio of

i—

: 12 eee
F to h being greater (or less) than that of F to H, the altitude computed with i in lieu
of the pressures diminished by the tension of the vapour, will err in defect (or excess).

42 Mr, Nixon on the Measurement of Heights, ce. [Jan.

To make the correction for the difference of temperature of
the mercury also additive, we have but to suppose that of h’ to
be at 100° F. Consequently as the interior thermometer of any
one of the inferior barometers will never indicate so elevated a
temperature, its perpendicular distance from h’, as given in
Tables II. and III. must be augmented by multiplying the differ-
ence of its attached thermometer, and 100° by 2°18 feet (the
value of 1° of the difference at 0° F.). Tabularly arranged, the
correction at 100° F. will be 0 feet; at 99°, 2°18 feet, &c. (See
Table LV.)

The height of h’ above the level of 2 and H being obtained by
adding together for each the quantities given in the three tables,
their difference will be equal to the elevation of h above H at
0° F. Multiplying this approximate height by the sum of the
thermometers, and dividing the product by 836, we have the
correction in altitude additive for temperatures above 0° F.

Multiplying -002837 by cosine of twice the latitude, we obtain
the fractional correction in altitude proper for that parallel.
Then as an addition to (or subtraction from) the sum of the
detached thermometers at 110°, equal to 1°, augments (or dimi-
nishes) the altitude ‘001057, we have but to substitute for the
fractional corrections their equivalents in degrees and quarters
of the sum of the thermometers. At the equator, the equivalent

would be = oat = 23°, (See Table V.)

Having given the altitude and height of the thermometer at
the upper station, we find the mean temperature, the fall of the
thermometer being 2° in 500 feet, by dividing the difference of
level of the stations by 500, and adding the quotient, considered
as degrees to the temperature observed at the summit, At 55°
an increase of the mean temperature equal to 1° augments the

altitude a However as the fall of 2° in 500 feet may be con-
; d : ; ae
sidered in excess, we will call the mean dilatation Sn} the cor-

rection for altitudes computed with twice the height of the upper
thermometer substituted for the sum of the thermometers, will

then be equal to the square of ath part of the approximate alti-
tude. (See Table VI.)

(To be continued.)

1826.] Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations,

ArticLe VIII.

Astronomical Observations, 1825.

By Col. Beaufoy, FRS.

Bushey Heath, near Stanmore.

43

Latitude 51° 37’ 44°3” North. Longitude West in time 1’ 20:93”,

Observed Transits of the Moon and Moon-culminating Stars over the Middle Wire of
the Transit Instrument in Sidereal Time.

Eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites.

1825. Stars. Transits.
Noy. 19.—a Piscium .......... shepsleded 920 OO 47°35"
19.—y Piscium........0.pecccecces 23 08 10:15
99.5252 'Pisclurde see ee aka as 23 18 02°56
19. —Moon’s First or West Limb.... 23 26 00°61
TO AAA PISCIM) « oon oichecin ah ape'se ieenis 23 33 «11-68
19.—19 Pisclum........... nee Ps 3 23 37 «31°84
19.—22 Piscium........ a ksteews 23 43 05:22
19.—w Piscium . .....+6. bby Ase --. 23 50 24-44
Ql.—y Pegasi ....eeccereceees eee» O O4 15°39
OAS PARC WIMRS 6 a's. c) ane sie ibis 4 Ryeae. slo 0 13 27:35
BTs— JO Piscint...) wah aise cee 20° 0 25 11°65
@V58 Piscluty 22506 Wo 0k bie deeb 0 37 59:00
21,—Moon’s First or West Limb.... O 57 23:17
B1—JO! Piscium. «06.9 s'0 2.0500 90 stole 1 26 30-82
Si —— 104 WISClUM occ cejoctanencc ep c's 1 29 58-65
22.5 Piscean Jt) Fie sels stop ee 1 22 12-90
221 OP Biscuits sid: s few siaes p> > e oe hb SLO
22,.—103 Piscium ....seescoreeeces 1 29 55-63
paper AVA TIEUAS ok s Seite aciepina ss selene 1 38 AT Ti
22.—Moon’s First or West Limb .... 1 44 57°81
v2.—I19 Arietis :.....8- Baths poate ayy iw ORI ip ee.
Y2,.—29 Arietis. .c.secseee seceeee 2 23 25:66
O5.—o TP AUT.. ccc c cc cvabescee eee Maya & LTO
Ba sx) Laurie Wie wave cle cee obec Gaus A 15 02-96
25.82 Tauri, i... Sec cccnscceses 4 17 44-48
25.—Moon’s East or Second Limb... 4 22 45°09
ALE 3G LEY hy Bee Bere eral stere ate oe 5 81 50°96
PD.—243 Tarri.', oo saved » vive oe be laure A AT 17°74
Diet Maura 6 seiciveies > pieipbabs oetey 4 52 A4ll
Pes IOS Taal | i cis sihip ice Mae eicie cise A 51 33-64
25.—108 "Paurt oop nccccocccccccees 5 05 02°56
25.-—y, Tauris sss hove dliata tte ta ge 5 08 51°63
Ber Danrr ty picsises esas)» s Here's 4 31 50-96
ii seu BUTTS tel ajals bly! died \alpinaieip inte ie 4 52 44-54
26.—105 Tauri .....-0ccscecsccces A 57 34:05
26.—108 Tauri. .. ccccccccvceccece 5 05 02:°TT
BGiesry Paurd si) 2.) sris o ppee se ashi 5 O08 52°05
26,—Moon’s East or Second Limb... 5 18 23°01
RO.—E Tauri... .cecesccscecsrcsvece 5 QT 17°84

Noy. 15. Immersion of Jupiter’s fourth § 14) 13’ 05’’ Mean Time at Bushey.
P y

satellite

N. B. Jupiter not well defined.

RN eek SER ANY 14 14 26 Mean Time at Greenwich.

Nov. 17. Immersion of Jupiter’s first{16 32 15 Mean Time at Bushey.

Satellite . s\n eo. cps cicgaweavine ©
Noy. 24. Immersion of Jupiter's first
BALCH, « o'o's oss se ce sever’

16
18
18

Noy, 25, Lunar eclipse. Moon rosef 5
eclipsed, We ave ee cb aiedse rT 6

33
25
26
02
03

36
36
57
24
4b

Mean Time at Greenwich.
Mean Time at Bushey.
Mean Time at Greenwich.
Mean Time at Bushey.
Mean Time at Greenwich,

44 Mr. Faraday on new Compounds (JAN.

‘ARTICLE IX.

On new Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen, and on certain
other Products obtained during the Decomposition of Oil by
Heat. By M. Faraday, F.R.S. Cor. Mem. Royal Academy
of Sciences of Paris, &c.*

_ The object of the paper which I have the honour of sub-
mitting at this time to the attention of the Royal Society, is
to describe particularly two new compounds of carbon and
hydrogen, and generally, other products obtained during the
decomposition of oil by heat. My attention was first called
to the substances formed in oil at moderate and at high tempe-
ratures, in the year 1820; and since then I have endeavoured
to lay hold of every opportunity for obtaining informatiun on
the subject. A particularly favourable one has been afforded
me lately through the kindness of Mr. Gordon, who has fur-
nished me with considerable quantities of a fluid obtained
during the compression of oil gas, of which I had some years
since possessed small portions, sufticient to excite great interest,
but not to satisfy it.

It is now generally known, that in the operations of the
Portable Gas Company, when the oil gas used is compressed
in the vessels, a fluid is deposited, which may be drawn off and
preserved in the liquid state. The pressure applied amounts
to 30 atmospheres; and in the operation, the gas previously
contained ina gasometer over water, first passes into a large
strong receiver, and from it, by pipes, into the portable vessels.
It is in the receiver that the condensation principally takes
place; and it is from that vessel that the liquid I have worked
with has been taken. The fluid is drawn off at the bottom
by opening a conical valve: at first a portion cf water generally
comes out, and then the liquid. It effervesces as it issues
forth; and by the difference of refractive power it may be seen,
that a dense transparent vapour is descending through the air
from the aperture. The effervescence immediately ceases;
and the liquid may be readily retained in ordinary stoppered,
or even corked bottles ; a thia phial being sufficiently strong to
confine it. I understand that 1000 cubical feet of good gas
yield nearly one gallon of the fluid.

The substance appears as a thin light fluid; sometimes trans-
parent and colourless, at others opalescent, being yellow or
brown by transmitted, and green by reflected light. It has
the odour of oil gas. When the bottle containing it is opened,
evaporation takes place from the surface of the liquid; and it
may be seen by the striz in the air that vapour is passing off
from it, ‘Sometimes in such circumstances it will boil, if the

* Philosophical Transactions for 1826, Part IJ.

1826.) of: Carbon and Hydrogen, c. 45

bottle and its contents have had their temperature raised a few
degrees. After a short time this abundant evolution of vapour
ceases, and the remaining portion is comparatively fixed.

‘The specific gravity of this substance is 0821. It does not
solidify at a temperature of 0° F. It is insoluble, or nearly so,
in water; very soluble in alcohol, ether, and volatile and
fixed oils. It is neutral to test colours. It is not more soluble
in alkaline solutions than in water; and only a-small portion is
acted upon by them. Muriatic acid has no action upon it.
Nitric acid gradually acts upon it, producing nitrous acid,
nitric oxide gas, carbonic, and sometimes hydrecyanic acid, &e.

-but the action is not violent. Sulphuric acid acts upon it in
a very remarkable and peculiar manner, which I shall have
-occasion to refer to more particularly presently, .

This fluid is a mixture of various bodies; which, though
they resemble each other in being highly combustible, and
throwing off much smoke when burnt in large flame, may yet
by their difference of volatility be separated in part from each
other. Some of it drawn from the condenser, after the pressure
had been repeatedly raised to 30 atmospheres, and at atime
when it was at 28 atmospheres, then introduced rapidly into a
stoppered bottle and closed up, was, when brought home,
put into a flask and distilled, its temperature being raised. by
the hand. The vapour which came off, and which caused the
appearance of boiling, was passed through a glass tube at 0°,
and then conducted to the mercurial trough; but little uncon-
densed vapour came over, not more than thrice the bulk of the
liquid; a portion of fluid collected in the cold tube, which
boiled and evaporated when the temperature was allowed to
‘rise; and the great bulk of the liquid which remained, might
now be raised to a comparatively high point, before it entered
Into ebullition.

A thermometer being introduced into another portion of the
fluid, heat. was applied, so as to keep the temperature just at
the boiling point. When the vessel containing it was opened,
it began to boil at 60° F. As the more volatile portions were
dissipated, the temperature rose: before a tenth part had been
thrown off, the temperature was above 100°. The heat con-
tinued gradually to rise, and before the substance was all vola-
tilized, it had attained 250°.

Wich the hope of separating some distinct.substances from
this evident mixture, a quantity of it was distilled, and the
vapours condensed at a temperature of 0° into separate por-
tions, the receiver being charged with each rise of 10° in the
retort, and the liquid retained in a state of incipient ebullition.
In this way a succession of products were obtaiaed; but they
-were by no means constant; for the portions, for instance,
which came over when the fluid was boiling from 160° to 170°,

46 Mr. Faraday on new Compounds Pan.

when redistilled, began to boil at 130°, and a part remained
which did not rise under 200°. By repeatedly rectifying all
these portions, and adding similar products together, 1 was
‘able to diminish these differences of temperature, and at last
bring them more nearly to resemble a series of substances of
different volatility. During these operations I had occasion to
remark, that the boiling point was more constant at, or be-
tween 176° and 190°, than at any other temperature ; large
quantities of fluid distilling over without any change in the
degree; whilst in other parts of the series it was constantly
rising. This induced me to search in the products obtained
between these points for some definite substance, and I ulti-
mately succeeded in separating a new compound of carbon and
hydrogen, which I may by anticipation distinguish as bi-car-
buret of hydrogen.

Bi-carburet of Hydrogen.

This substance was obtained in the first instance in the fol-
lowing manner: tubes containing portions of the above rec-
tified products were introduced into a freezing mixture at 0°;
many of them became turbid, probably from the presence of
water; one, received at 176°, (by which is meant that that was
the boiling point of the contents of the retort when it came
over) became partly solid, crystals forming round the side,
and a fluid remaining in the centre; whilst two other portions,
one received at 186°, and the other at 190°, became quite hard.
A cold glass rod being introduced into one of these tubes, the
mass within was found to resist considerable pressure; but by
breaking it down, a solid part was thrust to the bottom of the
tube, whilst a fluid remained above: the fluid was poured off,
and in this way the solid portion partly purified. The contents
of the tube were then allowed to fuse, and were introduced into
a larger and stronger tube, furnished with another which en-
tered loosely within it, both being closed of course at the
lower end; then again lowering the temperature of the whole
to 0°, bibulous paper was introduced, and pressed on to the
surface of the solid substance in the large tube by the end of the
smaller one. In this way much fluid was removed by suc-
cessive portions of paper, and a solid substance remained,
which did not become fluid until raised to 28° or 29°. To com-
plete the separation of the permanently fluid part, the substance
was allowed to melt, then cast into a cake in a tin foil mould,
‘and pressed between many folds of bibulous paper in a
Bramah’s press, care having been taken to cool the paper, tin
foil, flannel, boards, and other things used, as near to 0° as
possible, to prevent solution of the solid substance in the fluid
part to be removed. It was ultimately distilled from off caustic
lime, to separate any water it might contain.

1826.] of Carbon and Hydrogen, §c. 47

‘The general process, which appears to me to be the best
for the preparation of this substance only, is to distil a portion
of the fluid deposited during the condensation of oil gas, to set
aside the product obtained before the temperature rises to 170°,
to collect that which comes over by 180°, again separately that
which comes over by 190°, and also the portion up to 200° or
210°. That before 170° will upon redistillation yield portions
to be added to those of 180° and 190°; and the part obtained
from 190° upwards will also, when redistilled, yield quantities
boiling over at 180°, 190°, &c. Having then these three por-
tions obtained at 180°, 190°, and 200°, let them be rectified
one after the other, and the products between 175° and 195°
received in three or four parts at successive temperatures. Then
proceed with these as before described.

It will sometimes happen, when the proportion of bi-carburet
of hydrogen is small in the liquid, that the rectifications must
be many times repeated before the fluids at 185° and 190° will
deposit crystals on cooling; that is to say, before sufficient of
the permanently fluid part at low temperatures has been re-
moved, to leave a solution so saturated as to crystallize at 0°.

Bi-carburet of hydrogen appears in common circumstances
as a colourless transparent liquid, having an odour resembling
that of oil gas, and partaking also of that of almonds. Its
specific gravity is nearly 0°85 at 60°. When cooled to about
82° it crystallizes, becoming solid; and the portions which
are on the sides of the glass exhibit dendritrical forms. By
leaving tubes containing thin solid films of it in ice-cold water,
and allowing the temperature to rise slowly, its fusing point
was found to be very nearly 42° F.; but when liquid it may, like
water and some saline solutions, be cooled much below that
point before any part becomes solid. It contracts very much
on congealing, 9 parts in bulk becoming 8 very nearly; hence
its specific gravity in that state is about 0°Y56. At 0° it appears
as a white or transparent substance, brittle, pulverulent, and of
the hardness nearly of loaf sugar.

It evaporates entirely when exposed to the air. Its boiling
point in contact with glass is 186°. The specific gravity of
its vapour, corrected to a temperature of 60°, is nearly 40, hy-
drogen being 1; for 2:3 grains became 3°52 cubic inches of
vapour at 212°. Barometer 29°98. Other experiments gave a
mean approaching very closely to this result.

It does not conduct electricity.

This substance is very slightly soluble in water; very soluble
in fixed and volatile oils, in ether, alcohol, &c.; the alcoholic
solution being precipitated by water. It burns with a bright
flame and much smoke. When admitted to oxygen gas, so
much vapour rises as to make a powerfully detonating mixture

48 Mr. Faraday on new Compounds [JAn:

When passed through a red hot tube, it gradually deposits
carbon, yielding carburetted hydrogen gas.

Chlorine introduced to the substance in a retort exerted but
little action until placed in sun-light, when dense fumes were
formed, without the evolution of much heat; and ultimately
much muriatic acid was produced, and two other substances,
one a solid crystalline body, the other a dense thick fluid, It
was found by further examination that neither of these were
soluble in water; that both were soluble in alcohol—the liquid
readily, the solid with more difficulty. Both of them appeared
to be triple compounds of chlorine, carbon, and hydrogen;
but I reserve the consideration of these, and of other similar
compounds, to another opportunity.

Iodine appears to exert no action upon the substance in seve-
ral days in sun-light ; it dissolves in the liquid in small quantity,
forming a crimson solution.

Potassium heated in the liquid did not lose its brilliancy, or
exert any action upon it, at a temperature of 186°.

Solution of alkalis, or their carbonates, had no action upon it.

Nitric acid acted slowly upon the substance and became red,
the fluid remaining colourless. When cooled to 32°, the sub-
stance became solid and of a fine red colour, which disappeared
upon fusion. The odour of the substance with the acid was
exceedingly like that of almonds, and it is probable that hydro-
cyanic acid was formed. When washed with water, it appeared
to have undergone little or no change.

Sulphuric acid added to it over mercury exerted a moderate
action upon it, little or no heat was evolved, no blackening took

lace, no sulphurous acid was formed; but the acid became of
a light yellow colour, and a portion of a clear colourless fluid
floated, which appeared to be a product of the action. When
separated, it was found to be bright and clear, not affected by
water or more sulphuric acid, solidifying at about 34°, and being
then white, crystalline, and dendritical. The substance was
lighter than water, soluble in alcohol, the solution being preci-
pitated by a small quantity of water, but becoming clear by
great excess.*

* The action of sulphuric acid on this and the other compounds to be described, is
very remarkable. It is frequently accompanied with heat ; and large quantities of those
bodies which have elasticity enough to exist as vapours when alone at common pressures,
are absorbed. No sulphurous acid is produced ; nor when the acid is diluted, does any
separation of the gas, vapour, or substance, take place, except of a small portion of a
peculiar product resulting from the action of the acid on the substances, and dissolved by
it. The acid combines directly with carbon and hydrogen: and I find when united
with bases forms a peculiar class of salts, somewhat resembling the sulphovinates, but
still different from them. I find also that sulphuric acid will condense and combine
with olefiant gas, no carbon being separated, or sulphurous or carbonic acid being
formed ; and this absorption has in the course of 18 days amounted to 84-7 volumes of
olefiant gas to | volume of sulphuric acid. The acid produced combines with bases, &c.

1826.} of Carbon and Hydrogen, &c. 49

With regard to the composition of this substance, my experi-
ments tend to prove it a binary compound of carbon and hydro-
gen, two proportionals of the former element being united to one
of the latter, The absence of oxygen is proved by the inaction
of potassium, and the results obtained when passed through a

red hot tube.

’ The following is a result obtained when it was passed in
vapour over heated oxide of copper. 0:776 grain of the sub-
stance produced 5:6 cubic inches of carbonic acid gas, at a
temperature of 60°, and pressure 29-98 inches ; and 0°58 grain
of water were collected. The 5:6 cubic inches of gas are equi-
valent to 0°711704 grain of carbon by calculation, and the 0°58
grain of water to 0:064444 of hydrogen.

Carbon. ........0+... 0°711704 or 11°44
Hydrogen. ............ 0064444 I

These quantities nearly equal in weight the weight of the sub-
stance used; and making the hydrogen 1, the carbon is not far
removed from 12, or two proportionals,

Four other experiments gave results all approximating to the
above. The mean result was 1 hydrogen, 11-576 carbon.

Now considering that the substance must, according to the
manner in which it was prepared, still retain a portion of the
body boiling at 186°, but remaining fuid at 0°, and which
substance | find, as will be seen hereafter, to contain less carbon
than the crystalline compound (only about 8:25 to 1 of hydro-
gen), it may be admitted, I think, that the constant though
small deficit of carbon found in the experiments is due to the
portion so retained ; and that the crystalline compound would,
if pure, yield 12 of carbon for each i of hydrogen ; or two pro-
portionals of the former element and one of the latter.

2 proportionals carbon.... 12 Hip
1 proportional hydrogen .. i} 13 bi-carburet of hydrogen.

This result is confirmed by such data as I have been able to
obtain by detonating the vapour of the substance with oxygen.
Thus in one experiment 8092 mercury grain measures of oxygen
at 62° had such quantity of the substance introduced into it as
would entirely rise in vapour; the volume increased to 8505,

hence the vapour amounted to 413 parts, or ae of the mixture

nearly. Seven volumes of this mixture were detonated in an
eudiometer tube by an electric spark, and diminished in conse-
quence nearly to 6-1: these acted upon by potash were further

forming peculiar salts, which I have not yet had time, but which it is my intention, to
examine, as well as the products formed by the action of sulphuric acid on naphtha,
essential oils, &c. and even upon starch and lignine, in the production of sugar, gum,
&c. where no carbonization takes place, but where similar results seem to occurs

ew Series, VOL. XI, E

50 Analyses of Books, [Jaw

diminished to 4, which were pure oxygen. Hence three volumes
of mixture had been detonated, of which nearly 0:34 was vapour
of the substance, and 2°65 oxygen, The carbonic acid amounted
to 2:1 volumes, and must have consumed an equal bulk of oxy-
gen gas ; so that 0°55 remain as the quantity of oxygen which
has combined with the hydrogen to form water, and which with
the 0°34 of vapour nearly make the diminution of 0-9. i

Tt will be seen at once that the oxygen required for the carbon
is four times that for the hydrogen ; and that the whole state-
ment is but little different from the following theoretical one,
deduced partly from the former experiments. 1 volume of
vapour requires 7°5 volumes of oxygen for its combustion ; 6 of
the latter combine with carbon to form 6 of carbonic acid, and
the 1:5 remaining combine with hydrogen to form water. The
hydrogen present, therefore, in this compound is equivalent to
3 volumes, though condensed into one volume in union with the
carbon; and of the latter elements there are present six propor:
tionals, or 36 by weight. A volume, therefore, of the substance
in vapour contains

CALNOM cits Lc sstines an trenehe brax co<at Lae
HY GIOge ioo.ses seen Hiern adga wo

and its weight or specific gravity will be 39, hydrogen being 1.
Other experiments of the same kind gave results according with

these.
(To be continued.)

ARTICLE. X.
ANALYSES or Books.

Considerations on Volcanos, the probable Causes of their Pheéno-
mena, the Laws which determine their March, the Disposition
of their Products, aud their Connexion with the present State
and past History of the Globe. By G. Poulett Scrope, Esq.
Sec. GS. Phillips, 1825.

‘Tne author commences this work with a descriptive account of
the phenomena of volcanos, remarking on their numberand disper-
sion over the globe’s surface, their division into subaeria/ and
subaqueous vents, and the various conditions in which they at
times appear, and which he classes as, Phases, 1. Of permanent
eruption; 2. Of moderate activity ; and 3. Of prolonged inter-
mittences. Examples are given of these several phases, and a
detailed description of their most ordinary characteristi¢s.

oe

1826.] Mr. Scrope on Volcanos. 61

In proceeding to account for these phenomena, he remarks
that they prove the existence of a body of lava in a state of
ebullition beneath every volcanic aperture during the period of
its activity. He then examines the nature of this ebullition,
and finds reason to conclude from the crystalline texture of all
lavas, their sudden congelation on exposure, the stnall quantity
of heat radiated by them even when incandescent, and the
volumes of aqueous vapour they evolve, that their partial lique-
faction is not owing to fusion, but to the vaporization of minute
quantities of water interposed between the lamine of their com-
ponent crystals. The explosive escape of steam in vast quantity
from the orifice of every volcano during an eruption, and from
the surface and clefts of every lava current as it Hows in open air,
proves the existence of this fluid in the interior of the mass, and
the elevation of liquid lava through the chimney of the volcano,
the jets of scorie which accompany its rise, and the numerous
vesicular cavities and pores of the rock into which it consoli-
dates, all appear the necessary consequences of the generation
of steam in this situation. Other aeriform fluids, perhaps many
permanent gases, are probably evolved at the same time, but the
great body of vapour appears to be aqueous,

The author proceeds to account for this process by supposing
the continual accession from below of increments of caloric to a
mass of crystalline rock of this nature already at an intense
temperature, and confined beneath the solid crust of the globe.
The consequence would be the increase of its expansive force
without other limit than the yielding of the overlying strata.
When this occurred, and a fissure was broken through them, and
sufficiently enlarged, the consequent sudden reduction of pres-
sure on the heated rock below would vaporize its contained
water, liquefy the mass, and force it to rise in an intumescent,
or ebullient state to discharge itself through this aperture, while
exploding volumes of steam escaping from its surface as rapidly
as the weight and tenacity of the substance permits them, carry
up into the air showers of red-hot fragments and ashes, in the
exact manner of a volcanic eruption.

But the quantity of matter thus protruded by its weight and
rapid congelation, tends to choke and seal up the fissure of
eruption, and check the progress of the ebullition below; and
in far the greater number of cases these obstructing causes
sooner or later prevail, the force of repression obtains the predo-
minance over that of expansion, and an interval of outward tran-
quillity ensues. During this the subterranean mass of Java
which has been cooled down by the sudden partial vaporization
of its aqueous particles, has its temperature again raised by the
communication of caloric from below, till a second eruption is
the consequence of the yielding of the congealed crust to its
increasing force of expansion.

E2

52 » Analyses of Books.” ‘Jan.

Rare instances of permanent eruption (as at Stromboli) are
attributed to peculiar circumstances in the external figure and
position of the voleano, owing to which the erupted matters
escape from the orifice exactly in the ratio of the intumescence
that takes place below from the constant accession of caloric ;
the repressive forces being in this case preserved in equilibrio
with those of expansion. Such a volcano is of course as sensi-
ble as the barometer to al] changes in the pressure of the atmo-
sphere, and this in fact appears to be the case with the pheno-
“mena of Stromboli.

The author examines in detail, and by the strict rules of
physical science, the laws which must regulate all the variations
of the eruptive force, the duration of the quiescent intervals of
an habitual vent, the quantity of gaseous liquid and solid mat-
ters produced, the modes in which they dispose themselves, the
cooling and consolidation of lavas, their internal configuration,
‘texture, and mineral characters, their subsequent alteration by
acid vapours, or other agents, &c. and accompanies this inves-
‘tigation with corresponding facts from his own observation on
the recorded testimony of others. Many of these are new, and
highly interesting. Thus the great bulk of Trachytic when
compared with basaltic lavas, is proved to be owing to their
inferior specific gravity; examples are adduced of trachyte
alternating in beds or currents with basact ; volcanic mountains
are shown to be subjected to a process by which their great
craters are alternately hollowed out by paroxysmal eruptions,
and by degrees filled again to overflowing by the products of
less violent explosions; the origin of trass, moya, and some
tufas, is found in the bursting of lakes formed within the craters
of trachytic volcanos ; and it is shown that eruptions may be
continually taking place from numerous vents at the bottom of
the ocean without occasioning any visible commotion on its
surface, until the summit of the submarine volcanic mountain is
‘raised to within a short distance of that level, &c.

Every volcano is thus either a permanent or intermittent issue,
by which the caloric of the interior of the globe passes off into
outward space. By the more or less complete obstruction of

these vents, it is forced to accumulate on different points beneath
the superficial strata of the globe, until, by dilating the rocks in
which it resides, it produces fractures sufficiently deep and large
for its partial escape. In this manner the draught of caloric is
often torced to shift its direction, and is diverted from one vent
to another, the former becoming apparently extinct. In fact, it
is observed that an eruption is seldom repeated a second time
from precisely the same fissure ; and in the same manner as a
narrow cleft is sealed up by the consolidation of the vein oflava
it contains, or the accumulation of loose fragments above it, and
the local expansive force of the heated lava below, checked for

1826.) Mr. Scrope on Volcanos. 53

a time, and forced at length to break out by another issue; so
the accumulation of similar obstructions, of greater magnitude,
and during a longer period of eruption, checks the general
expansive force of the subterranean caloric for intervals of great
duration, and drives it to force an issue at length in some other
direction, perhaps at a superficial distance of some hundreds of
miles, leaving the former vent to ail appearance extinct.

The jarring and vibratory motion occasioned by the sudden
rupture of the overlying mass, is supposed to occasion the pheenu-
mena of earthquakes, which are felt over a greater or less surface
according as the seat of expansion is contined to the focus of
an habitual volcano, or exists at a greater depth, and extends
more widely.

To repeated expansions of this nature taking place at a great
depth, Mr. Poulett Scrope attributes the elevation of mountain
chains; the fractures, contortions, and other irregularities of
their strata resulting from the immense friction occasioned by
the protrusion through them of the crystalline rocks in a solid
state (granites, porphyries, serpentines, Xc.), and the subsidences
produced by their elevation to high angles while often in a semi-
solid state.

But as it is not on these lines of greatest elevation that vol-
canos have usually burst forth, the author conceives this process
to occasion the formation of parallel fissures at a distance, by
the lateral drag accompanying the forcible elevation of the
superficial strata; and that the sudden reduction of pressure on
the internal mass of heated rock immediately under these clefts,
or the largest and deepest of them, causes it to intumesce and
break out on various points; thus giving rise to those /inear
chains of volcanic vents which are so remarkably obvious on the
globe’s surface, and which frequently present a decided parallel-
ism to one another, and to some neighbouring range of conti-
nental mountains. The activity of these lateral vents propor-
tionately retards the increase of expansive force general to the
subterranean rock, and tends to check the farther elevation of
the neighbouring continent. Hence volcanos act as safety-
valves to the globe; while in their origin they are only secondary
and attendant circumstances to the more immediate and primary
result (as well as final cause) of subterranean expansion, viz.
partial elevations of the solid crust of our planet.

This theory is then applied to account for the most remarkable
features in the surfaces of continents; and the author goes on
to examine, though in a more cursory way, as not properly
belonging to his subject, the probable origin of the various
stratified rocks, and the causes of their distinguishing charac-
ters.

_ This leads him to hazard a sketch of a theory of the globe,

54 — Analyses of Books. Jan.

which he conceives to have beén at an intense temperature
throughout, when first it reached its actual orbit, perhaps
launched from the sun, according to Buffon’s notion. The
rapid and prodigious superficial vaporization to which it must
have been subjected in open space, suddenly congealed a solid
crust around it (granitic). On this the primeval ocean was
deposited by the gradual condensation of the aqueous vapours
which the force of gravity confined to the vicinity. The other
aeriform fluids generated during its vaporization united to form
the atmosphere of the planet. But as the caloric of the nucleus
began again to spread towards the surface, expansions took
place beneath this crust, which was broken through and raised
on numerous points. In this age of turbulence the schistose
rocks, gneiss, mica slate, and the earlier (so called) transition
strata were deposited, the transported and suspended fragment-
‘ary particles (particularly the mica) subsiding to the bottom
wherever the ocean was sufficiently tranquil, and the substances
held in solution by it (carbonate and sulphate of lime, muriate
of soda, &c.) being precipitated at the same time as its waters
cooled. The mineral characters and organic remains of these
rocks testify to these circumstances of the archaic ocean, as the
inferior disturbance, the less crystalline texture, and more per-
fect organized remains of the later strata, indicate their formation
ata period of less turbulence, when elevations of the globe’s
crust were less frequent and violent, when the temperature of the
ocean and atmosphere had diminished, and the quantity of water
taken into circulation through the atmosphere, and returned in
torrents on the surfaces of the new continents, had proportion-
ately decreased.

The author, after remarking on the wonder-working spirit
which has dictated most theories on this subject, closes with
these words: ‘The theory of the globe, which I have hazarded
above, and which I am aware requires much ulterior develope-
ment, and perhaps some corrections, to render it complete, con-
sists simply in the application of those modes of operation
which nature still employs on a large scale, in the production
before our eyes of fresh mineral masses on the surface of the
earth, to explain the origin of those which we find there already.
If, after fair discussion, and with all reasonable allowances, it is
found adequate to this purpose, its truth will be established on
the soundest possible basis—the same upon which rests the
whole fabric of our knowledge on every subject whatsoever ;
the supposition, namely, that the laws of nature do not vary,
but that similar results always are, have been, and will be pro-
duced by similar preceding circumstances.”

An appendix is added, containing a list of known yoleanos in
recent or habitual activity; and an examination into the appa-

1826.) Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. 55

_rently anomalous phenomena described by M. de Humboldt, as
having accompanied the eruption of Jorullo, in Mexico.
The work is illustrated by an engraving, some lithographic
drawings and maps, and numerous wood-cuts, introduced into
the text.

ArticLe XI.
Proceedings of Philosophical Societies.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

The Fellows of the Royal Society held their anniversary
meeting, as usual, on St. Andrew’s Day, when the Presidente,
Sir Humphry Davy, delivered an eloquent address to the mem-
bers present, on announcing the decision of the Council with
respect to the award of the Copley medals. The medal of this
a donation, he informed them, has been bestowed on

- Arago, FRS. and Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences
of Paris; and another, which was not disposed of on a former

ear, to Mr. Peter Barlow, FRS. and Professor in the Royal

ilitary Academy at Woolwich. |
_ ©The discoveries and labours,” said Sir H. Davy, “ which
your Council have made it their pleasure, and thought it their
duty to honour, by conferring on their authors the highest
rewards of this Society, both belong to the same department
of science, Magnetism—a department which has always claimed
a considerable portion of your attention; both in its relations to
philosophy and utility, to the laws and properties of natural
forms, end to navigation, the great source of the power and
prosperity of this mighty empire.”

Sir Humphry then entered into some historical details and
general views on the subject of magnetism, in order more
distinctly to state the grounds of the decisions of the Council,
which he had just announced, and set forth the justice of the
awards ; and to prove, that “though much has been done, more
still remains to be effected for the distinct knowledge of the laws
and relations of these mysterious phenomena.”

The property of the magnet to attract iron seems to have been
known from the most remote antiquity ; but its directive force,
and consequently its use in navigation, was wholly unknown to
the ancients. The period when the polarity of the magnet was
first applied to maritime purposes, was some time between the
years 1100 and 1300. The variation of the compass was disco-
vered somewhere about the end of the 15th century, “ probably
in the two great voyages made to the eastern aud western worlds,
by Vasco di Gama, and Christopher Columbus.” The dip of the
needle was ascertained by Robert Norman, in London, in 1581,

56. Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. (Jan.

and the change of variation was accurately demonstrated by
Prof. Gellibrand, of Gresham College, in 1635.

In 1600, Dr. Gilbert, of Colchester, published, in Latin, his
Treatise de Magnete. ‘ In this truly philosophical and original
work, the author endeavours to prove that the phenomena of
magnetism are owing to the magnetic polarity of the earth,—
that soft iron becomes a temporary magnet py the influence of
the earth,—that in steel the magnetic property is induced by the
same cause, with more difficulty indeed, but the effect is more
permanent ; and he explains the motion of the needle, and the
powers of common magnets, by showing that opposite poles of
different magnets attract each other in some definite ratio of
their distance. He indulges, which could hardly be avoided in
that age, in some vague hypotheses, and details some futile
experiments ; but notwithstanding this, his views display very.
extraordinary powers of mind; and though censured by his
contemporary, Lord Bacon, for endeavouring to solve the pheeno-
mena of gravitation by magnetic attraction, yet his researches
have a character of inductive reasoning perfectly in the spirit of
the philosophy of that great man, who, had he studied his work,
with more attention, would have found in it numerous examples
of his own sublime method of pursuing science, a contempt for
the speculative authority of the ancients, and an appeal, almost
‘ new in those times, to the laborious method of repeated experi-
ments.”

The President then went on to mention the discovery of the
diurnal variation of the needle in 1722 by George Graham; the.
labours of Lambert, Coulomb, and Robison on the laws that
regulate magnetic attractions and repulsions, and the mathema-
tical views of the theory of magnetism brought forward by
Epinus and Robison on the hypothesis of a single magnetic
fluid, and the recent memoirs of M. Poisson on the supposition
of two fluids, an Austral and Boreal, presented to the Royal
Academy of Sciences of Paris.

“ The hypothesis of magnetic, which so closely agrees,
with that of electric fluids, has been defended by similar
arguments, and illustrated by analogous experiments; and the
connexion between these two classes of phenomena had been
often observed and dwelt upon by philosophers.” | Beccaria
supposed the magnetism of the earth to be produced by electric
currents, and similar opinions were advanced and supported by
vague analogies, and insufficient facts; but “ till the important
discovery of M. Girsted, the true relations of magnetism and
electricity were unknown.” “J could with pleasure,” said the
President, “‘ dwell on this discovery, and its immediate conse-
quences in the developement of new and extraordinary results ;_
and would the time allotted to a discourse of this nature allow
it, 1 should have great satisfaction in describing to you the

1826.] i Royal Society. 57

labours and the discoveries of various philosophers belonging to
this and the other learned Societies of Europe, and which have
established, within the last five years, a perfectly new order of
facts, not less brilliant from their striking and unexpected results,
than important in their relations and theoretical applications to
other phenomena of nature.”

“ T cannot, however, quit this part of my subject without call-
ing your attention to the manner in which these discoveries
have originated and been pursued, as it affords the most remark-
able instance upon record of the unity of the laws of nature—of
the mode in which remote phenomena are connected together,
and the happy consequence of close attention to unexpected or
uncommon results.”

“ A fact discovered by Galvani, and by him believed to be
strictly physiological, investigated by the genius of Volta, was
the origin of his wonderful pile, or battery ; and this instrument,
aiter its powers had been apparently exhausted in demonstrating
new laws in electricity, and affording us new creations in
chemistry—altering our arrangements and systems,—became, in
the hands of the Danish philosopher, a source of novel and per-
fectly unexpected combinations, throwing a light upon parts of
the corpuscular philosophy which were before in absolute
darkness.”

“ Though the labours of M. Arago, which have been the
object of the vote of your Council, cannot be considered as
immediate consequences of M. Cirsted’s discovery, it is proba-
ble they never would have been undertaken had not this
discovery immediately excited the attention of their excellent
author, who was one of the first philosophers that endeavoured
to investigate, confirm, and illustrate the facts of electro-magne-
tism.” ‘Sir Humphry Davy next alluded to the idea of Conlomb
(who was probably deceived by the presence of minute portions
of iron in the substances he operated on) that all bodies in
nature are capable of magnetic attractions; and the various
experiments which were made, after the discovery that magne-
tism is a consequence of electrical action, to produce magnetic
effects in other metals besides those long known to be capable
of them, the results of which proved that the effects were tran-
sient, and disappeared with the electrical cause.

“Till M. Arago’s inquiries, iron, nickel, cobalt, and their
combinations, were the only species of matter apparently
affected by magnets. His experiments extend this property
under certain modifications to all metallic substances ; and it is
said, though as yet we have no distinct details, to various other
bodies.”

«<M. Arago found that the extent of the vibrations ofa magne-
tized needle was greatly diwinished by holding over it a plate
of copper ; and by causing a plate of copper to revolve below it,

58 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [Jan.

the direction of the needle was soon changed, it began to turn
round, and the velocity of its revolutions increased, till they
became too rapid to be counted.

_ ©M. Arago made the same trials with other metallic sub-
stances, and with similar results, differing, as might be expected,
in intensity ;” and these experiments have been repeated, con-
firmed, and extended, by MM. Herschel, Babbage, and
Christie.

. “Itis for the discovery of this fact, the power of various
bodies, principally metallic, to receive magnetic impressions in
the same, though in a more evanescent manner than malleable
iron, and in an infinitely less intense degree, that your Council
have awarded your medal to M. Arago; and you, I am sure,
cannot but approve of their decision ; for whether in its imme-
diate relations, or ultimate applications, there is no physical
fact which has been made known during the present year, that
can with propriety be put in competition with it.

. “ By extending the empire of magnetism to a number of
bodies, it removes much of what was mysterious and inexplica-
ble in that department of science, and renders it a branch of the
general philosophy of nature; and when the new analogies
between magnetic and electrical action established by these
phenomena are considered, there is much reason to hope that
they may be ultimately referred to the same cause, and, with
chemical affinity, nossibly be found identical with the general
quality or power of attraction of gravitation.”

_ Sir Humphry Davy then adverted to the scientific labours of
Mr. Barlow, and passed a well-merited encomium on his papers
published in the Transactions of the Royal Society, which, he
observed, establish his character as a judicious and accurate
experimenter, and an able reasoner ; but though the facts and
reasoning brought forward in those memoirs would undoubtedly
have claimed the attention of the Council, and might have led
them to balance Mr. Barlow’s merits with these of other contri
butors to the Philosophical Transactions, “ their opinion was
fixed, and their decision formed, by a practical application of
science of great ingenuity and of considerable utility.”

Masses of iron become magnetic by the action of the earth: a
bar of soft iron, for instance, held vertically, has its north pole
uppermost, and attracts the needle in the same manner as the
pole of the earth; and all masses of iron, following the same
law, exert an action on the needle proportional to the square of
the distance, and of course destroy, or diminish in a certain
ratio, the action of the north pole of the earth. “ It is extraor-
dinary that so important a circumstance as the action of the
iron in a ship on the needle had not earlier and more strongly
arrested the attention of navigators. Even Dr. Halley, the most
accomplished and profound philosopher that ever made long

1826.) a3 Royal Society. — 59

voyages, though he observed the effect, does not seem to have
thought it werthy of correction, and that even when making a
set of minute observations on variation; he says, in his paper in
the Transactions, ‘ We know by experience how little the iron
guns on board ship affect the needle.’ This, however, probably
arose from the circumstance, that he was never in very high
latitudes.” Walker, in his Lecture on Magnetism, first called
the attention of navigators to the subject; Capt. Flinders
brought it before the notice of the Admiralty; and the late
arctic expeditions have afforded the fairest and fullest opportu-
nities of determining the fact.

“ Mr. Barlow, after making a number of experiments on the
phenomena presented by different large masses of iron, and
recurring to the principle that the contiguity of a small mass
makes it equal or superior in power to larger masses ; and that
the attractions and repulsions diminish as the square of the
distance, thought of two methods of correcting the errors arising
from the magnetism of the iron in ships ; one by compensating,
the other by doubling them, by means of small masses, or thin
plates of iron placed near the compass, the relation of which to
the magnetism of the earth, the iron in the ship, and the needle,
should be determined by experiments.” .
. Mr. Barlow has adopted the last method in practice, and its
utility has already been proved by Captains Baldey, Sabine, and
Parry, and other able and enlightened officers.

“The Royal Society ” the President continued, ‘has always
since its first institution, given particular encouragement, and
paid particular attention to those departments of science which
are strictly practical, and offer the best vindication and the
highest praise of the experimental and inductive method,
bringing philosophy, as it were, from the heavens to the earth,
and fixing her abode, not in visionary, splendid, and airy
edifices, but amongst the resting places and habitations of men.
To point out an useful application of any doctrine or discovery
has always been their highest pride, and fortunately they have
had many noble opportunities and examples. Indeed there is
scarcely any instance of a considerable advance made in the
knowledge of nature without being soon connected with some
tangible benefit or advantage ; as light is almost always accom-
panied by heat, the illuminating by the productive and nourish-
ing principle.

“In conformity to the usages and feelings of the Society, the
Council has awarded the medal to Mr. Barlow, who, by reason-
ing and experimenting upon a few simple facts long known, but
never applied, has founded an useful invention, tending to the
ated of an instrument, the most important, perhaps, to

ritons, of all those which have been the results of scientific

60 - Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. Pan,

principles ; increasing the perfection of an art which is notonly
one of the greatest sources of our power, but a bond of union
amongst nations, securing their intercourse, and extending the
progress of commerce, civilization, and refinement.” ,

Sir Humphry Davy then turned to Mr. South, who had under-
taken to forward the medal to M. Arago, and addressed him in
the following words :—“ Mr. South: In transmitting this medal
to M. Arago, assure him of the interest we take in his ingenious
and important researches, and inform him that we wait with
impatience for the continuation of his labours on this new and
fertile subject. As one of our Fellows, his discoveries have the
same interest for us as they have for his brethren of the Royal
Academy of Sciences, which, for more than a century and a
half, has gone on encouraging and emulating our labours. You
and our worthy Secretary * are an example of recent liberality
on their part, and of the respect paid to British talent. We, I
trust, shall never be behind them in dignity and nobleness of
sentiment ;—far be from us that narrow policy which would
contract the minds of individuals, and injure the interests of
nations by cold and exclusive selfishness,—which would raise
the greatness of one people by lowering the standard of that of
another. As in commerce, so in science, no one country can
become worthily pre-eminent, except in profiting by the wants,
resources, and wealth of its neighbours. Every new discovery
may be considered as a new species of manufacture, awaking
novel industry and sagacity, and employing new capital of
mind. When Newton developed the system of the universe,
and estabiished his own glory and that of his country on impe-
rishable foundations, he might be regarded as giving a boon to
the civilized world, for which no adequate compensation could
ever be made; yet, even in this, the most difficult and sublime
field of discovery, Britain has been repaid, if not fully yet
fairly, by the labours of Euler, La Grange, and, above all,
La Place, perfecting the theory of the lunar motions and plane-
tary perturbations, and affurding data of infinite importance in
the theory and practice of navigation. Science, like that
nature to which it belongs, is neither limited by time nor space ;
it belongs to the world, and is of no country, and of no age;
the more we know, the more we feel our ignorance, and how
much still remains unknown; and in philosophy the sentiment
of the Macedonian hero can never apply ; there are always new
worlds to conquer.”

To Mr. Barlow the President spoke as follows :—“ Mr. Barlow :
I have great pleasure in presenting you with this medal in the
name of the Royal Society. Receive it as the highest mark cf
distinction which they have the power to bestow. You haye

#* Mr, Herschel.

1826.] Royal Society.. 61

already been honoured by marks of approbation both at home
and abroad, far more valuable in a pecuniary point of view, but
no one which, | think, ought to give you more durable satisfac-
tion; for this award has, I believe, never been made except
after dispassionate and candid discussion ; never to gratify pri-
vate feelings, or to call for popular applause; and amongst
those philosophers who have received it are names of the very
highest rank in science. We trust, both on account of the
public good and your own glory, that you will engage in and
accomplish many new labours. You have not merely had
scientific success, but one still more gratifying to your heart and
feelings—the idea that you have been useful to your country,
and secured the gratitude of a body of men who are not tardy in
acknowledging benefits.”

_ The Society then proceeded to the election of Officers and
Council for the ensuing year. The following were chosen :—

Uf the Old Council.—Sir H. Davy, Bart.; Francis Baily,
Esq.; W. T. Brande, Esq.; Samuel Goodenough, Lord Bishop
of Carlisle ; Davies Gilbert, Esq.; J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. ;
Sir Everard Home, Bart.; Capt. H. Kater; John Pond, Esq.;
W. H. Wollaston, MD.; Thomas Young, MD.

Of the New Council—John Barrow, Esq.; John Bostock,
MD.; Sir A. P. Cooper, Bart.; Benjamin Gompertz, Esq. ;
Stephen Groombridge, Esq.; Sir Abraham Hume, Bart.; Daniel
Moore, Esq.; Richard, Earl of Mount Edgecombe; P. M. Ro-
get, MD.; James South, Esq.

. President.—Sir H. Davy, Bart.
Secretaries —W. T. Brande, Esq.and J. F. W. Herschel, Esq.

Treasurer.—Davies Gilbert, Esq.

Dec. 8.—A paper was read, entitled “ Additional Proofs of
the Source of Animal Heat being in the Nerves. By Sir E.
‘Home, Bart. VPRS.”

Dec. 15.—The President announced to the Society His
Majesty’s munificent foundation of two annual prizes, consisting
each of a medal of the value of fifty guineas, to be bestowed as
honorary distinctions, by the President and Council, on the
authors of such new discoveries as they may deem worthy of the
award ; and in such manner as shall best promote the objects
for which the Royal Society was instituted, and the interests
‘of science in general,

Dr. J. R. Johnson, elected into the Society in 1817, and
whose name had been then inserted in its printed lists, was
admitted a Fellow of the Society; and the Croonian Lecture,
by Sir E. Home, was read. The subject of this Lecture was the
structure of muscular fibre.

* Dec, 22.—Gideon Mantell, Esq. was admitted a Fellow of
the Society; and the following papers were read, of which we
shall give some account in our next*--On the Poison of the

62 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. Jan,

Common Toad; and, On the Heart of Animals belonging to
the Genus Rana; both by J. Davy, MD. FRS.
The Society then adjourned over the Christmas vacation.

LINNEAN SOCIETY.

Dec.6.—A continuation was read of A Svstematic Catalooue
of the Australian Birds in the Collection of the Linnean Society;
by N..A. Vigors, Esq. FLS. aad T. Horsfield, MD. FLS.

Dec. 20.—The reading of the Catalogue of Australian Birds
was continued ; and a paper was also read, containing Descrip-
tions of some new Species of Birds belonging to the genera
Phytotoma, Indicator, and Cursorius ; by Mr. Benjamin Lead-
beater, FLS.

ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY. ;

Dec. 9.—The President informed the Society, that when he
had the honour of announcing at their last meeting, the extraor-
dinary occurrence of the appearance of four comets in the short
space of as many months, he was little aware that he might at
that time have added a fifth to the number. This: last comet
appeared, from the account stated in the public journals, to
have been discovered by M. Pons, at. the beginning of last
month ; but, as it had considerable south declination, and was
advancing also to the southward, andat the same time very faint,
it probably would not be seen in this country.

Although the appearance of so many comets in one vear had
been mentioned as a remarkable phenomenon, yet he would not
wish to be understood as supposing that such a circumstance
had never previously occurred, nor was likely to occur again.
The fact was, that from the great attention which had been paid
by astronomers to the discovery of these bodies within these
few years, and the interest excited by the investigation of the
laws by which they were governed, a more than ordinary dili-
gence had been employed in searching for them. And there
was every reason to believe that if there were more labourers in
the field, a still richer harvest would ensue: from which there
might fairly be expected some additional light on the laws and
constitution of the universe.

The President likewise called the attention of the members to
the circumstance of the opposition of Mars in the month of Ma
in the ensuing year. It was well known, he remarked, that by
a comparison of the observations of this planet with the stars
which were near it at that time, made at places situated in these
latitudes and at other latitudes having considerable southern
declination, the parallax of the planet might be readily deduced,
and thence the parallax of the sun. As there were, at this time,
two active observatories in the southern hemisphere, where this
phenomenon would probably be attended to (as it had been at
the two preceding oppositions), it were extremely desirable that

1826.] Astronomical Society. - 63

corresponding observations should be made in the northern
hemisphere ; without which the observations made in the south
would (as far as this subject is concerned) be rendered of little or
no use. He trusted therefore that those practical astronomers
who were possessed of the requisite instruments (and they were
by no means complex or expensive) would attend to this pheno-
menon, and record the observations which they might have the
advantage and opportunity of making; the uncertainty of this
climate rendering it extremely desirable that all those who had
the means should unite in so useful an undertaking.

For the convenience of such observers, the President ané
nounced that he had computed the right ascension and declina+
tion of six stars, near which Mars would pass a few days before
and after his opposition: these being the whole which he could
find in any of the catalogues. They were here offered only as
a mean of identifying the star with which the planet may be
compared. It was probable that other stars might be seen, in
the field of view of the telescope; and that even some of thesé
might not be found ; for the catalogues of the smaller stars are
still very imperfect. It would render observations of this kind
more complete and useful, if regular observations of such stars
as might be situated near Mars at the time of his opposition,
were made at the public observatories; whereby the true posi+
tion of the planet in the heavens would be more correctly ascer-
tained.

The following are the mean positions of the stars above
alluded to on the Ist of Janu: ry, 1826 :—

Star. | Mag. | AR D.
8 Libre | 6 (|14541™ 55|—15° 16% 2”
a 3 4116) 15 18 42
(195)P }39| 43 0] 15 40 36
. 1 PE SSS 4638 | 16 5 12
os (962)P 189} 5351] 15 54° 8
v— | 67 57. 7) 15 48 13 "

The reading of the description of the large reflecting telescope
and frame made by Mr. Juhn Ramage, of Aberdeen, was termi-
nated. Mr. Ramage has, ever since the year 1806, devoted
much of his time to the construction of reflecting telescopes of
large size, and of convenient frames and supports, in which firm-
ness of structure and facility of adjustment to any required
position, should be equally attained. The telescope now
described has a twenty-five feet tube. The platform upon
which the telescope is placed, and revolves at pleasure, is a
strong circular rail-way of cast iron, twenty-seven feet and a half
in diameter, and four inches inbreadth. ‘The horizontal azimu-

64 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. Jan.

thal motion is upon concentric rollers, round a central pivot.
The stand or frame, though simple in its construction, cannot be
very intelligibly described without a model or a diagram. The
tube of the telescope is elevated to the required altitude by a
winch and tackle of pulleys. The gallery in which the observer
stands is adapted to the proper height by a similar winch and
tackle ; and to prevent accident from the breaking of the ropes,
it is supported at each side by two moveable bars that fall into
the steps of the ladders, which constitute a part of the frame.
The lower end of the tube rests upon two rollers, and at great
altitudes moves forwards, so that the tube itself is capable of
adjustment to all positions, from that, which is nearly horizontal
to that, which is neacly vertical. Without quitting the gallery,
the observer can move the tube both horizontally and vertically
upwards of 10°, and can with the utmost readiness (indepen-
dently of an assistant) direct the telescope to any point in the
heavens. All the motions are effected by means of a very few
cords, pulleys, and winches. The diameter of the speculum is
fifteen inches, and the focal length twenty-five feet. The eye-
pieces, which are adapted to magnify the image, possess powers
varying from 100 to 1500; and there are proper diaphragms to
modify the redundancy of light. The mode of observing is by
the “ front view.”

_ Mr. Ramage exhibited to the Society, besides a neat model
of the tube and apparatus, two specuiums ; one of fifteen inches
diameter, belonging to the telescope described, and another of
twenty-one inches diameter and fifty-four feet focus.

There was next read a paper on the subject of Parallaxes,
taking the word in an enlarged sense, by M. Littrow. It was
in the excellent treatise of Lagrange on the determination of the
solar parallax, from the observed transits of the inferior planets
over the sun’s disc, where the rectangular co-ordinates were
first employed, instead of the less convenient expressions of
spherical trigonometry, for the purpose of deducing the apparent
station of a planet from its longitude and latitude. The process
has been since improved by Olbers, Bessel, Rhode, &c. But
M. Littrow regards it as susceptible of sull further improve-
ments, which he has here exhibited. He gives the analytical
solution of several problems ; viz.

1, To determine the apparent longitude and latitude of astar,
from the true geocentric longitude and latitude.

2. To solve the inverse problem.

3 and 4. The solution of the preceding problems by series.

5. To find the apparent right ascension and declination, from
their true magnitudes, and vice versa.

6. To determine the apparent azimuth and altitude, from their
true magnitudes, and vice versd. :

7 and 8. To find the true place of the star, from its apparent

1826.] ~~ Astronomical Society. 65

place, and vice versd, without any reference to the honzon, the
ecliptic, and the equator, which is often useful in computing the
occultation of fixed stars by the moon.

9. A general problem, to find the apparent azimuth and appa-
rent altitude, from the true longitude and the true latitude ofa
star.

The resulting expressions for these several solutions are
analytically simple. Those which are deduced in series are
usually of this kind, namely,

log.c = log. b— (F) cos. §—1 (F)° cos. 2 6

. —1 (¢)’ cos. 3 $, &c.
in which the daw is evident.

M. Littrow concludes his paper by suggesting the applica-
tion of his principal formule to the solution of various other
problems.

Lastly, there was read a paper, entitled “ A Memoir on dif-
ferent Points relating to the Theory of the Perturbations of the
Planets expounded in the Mécanique Céleste ;” by M. Plana,
Astronomer Royal at Turin, and an Associate of this Society.

The object of the author in this memoir he states to be an
examination of various points in the theory of the planetary
perturbations as explained by M. de Laplace in the Mécanique
Céleste.. In undertaking this labour, he observes, he at first had
no expectation of meeting with any instance in which an actual
rectification of the results already arrived at would be neces-
sary ; but the progress of late made in the theory of perturba-
tions having enabled him to treat certain particular questions
more generally, and with more symmetry than heretofore, it is
not to be wondered at if he has been led to results which sur-
passin exactness those hitherto published. But in all such
cases, he adds, where he has arrived at conclusions not in
accordance with those of the illustrious author of the Mécanique
Céleste, he has thought it incumbent on him to give with the
fullest detail, not only the developments, but even the arithme-
tical calculations on which these ccnclusions have been founded.

The first chapter is devoted to the consideration of that arti-
fice in the Mécanique Céleste in which M. Laplace transfers his
formule from the mean motions, axes, &c. of the primitive or
undisturbed orbits, which are not given by observation, to those
of the disturbed, which are given as they exist in nature. This
he does by assuming an arbitrary constant introduced in one of
the integrations by which the perturbation in longitude is
derived, in such a manner as to make the term in the result
which depends on the mean motion vanish. M. Plana devotes
this chapter to the elucidation of this artifice, and shows the
correctness of M. Laplace’s results by obtaining the same con-

New Series, vou. x1. F

66 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies, ([Jan.

clusion by another and direct method. He then applies his
reasoning to numerical examples, and computes the quantity by
which the moon’s mean distance from the earth is permanently
altered by the sun’s action, which he finds to be about 1-100th
of the radius of the globe of the moon, in augmentation, the
corresponding increase of the periodic time being about one-
fourth of aday. The excentricity too undergoes an alteration
in its mean quantity from the same cause, equal to about 0-0007
of its actual amount.

A similar artifice in the use of an arbitrary constant added in
one of the necessary integrations for arriving at the first term of
the motion of the moon’s perigee, M. Plana observes, has ena-
bled M. Laplace to avoid an errer in that research to which his
method seemed to expose him, and to obtain the true result.
But he proceeds to show that this artifice is not necessary, and
that the same result may be obtained without the use of the
superfluous constant, by the aid of an equation he deduces for
the variable portion of the moon’s radius vector.

The method employed by M. Plana has the advantage, he
observes, of keeping distinctly in view throughout the whole
analysis the primitive elements, uninfluenced by the effect of
perturbation. The other he states to have been first employed
by Lagrange in the volume of the Memoirs of the Academy of
Berlin for 1783.

The author next proceeds to examine those parts of the theory
of perturbations, which depend on the non-sphericity of the
central body, and in which he remarks that the use of a similar
artifice in the Mécanique Céleste is accompanied with greater
obscurity, as a portion only of the arbitrary constant is retained.
He therefore enters on the investigation without the use of this
artifice, and deduces the results for the perturbations of the
planets due to the ellipticity of the sun by the formule for the
variation of the arbitrary constants.

The author next applies the same method to the theory of
the perturbations of the seventh satellite of Saturn by the
elliptic figure of the planet; and as he here arrives at final equa~
tions somewhat differing from those of M. Laplace, the whole
process is given in copious detail.

The second chapter of this paper is devoted to the consider-
ation of the effect of the actions of the fixed stars on the secular
variations of the planetary system. The expressions for the
secular variations of the excentricity and aphelion which the
author brings out, agree perfectly with Laplace’s in form, but
differ in the numerical coefficients, one of the terms having the
coefficient 4 where Laplace bas $, and another — 3, where
Laplace makes it— 1. As he suhsequently observes, however,
the action of the stars cannot possibly become sensible till after
the lapse of mapy hundreds of centuries ; so that these discre-

1826.] Astronomical Society. 67

pancies are practically of no importance. He remarks too that
this cause of perturbation prevents the equations between the
squares of the excentricities, the masses, and square roots of the
axes, so often referred to as insuring the stability of the plane-
tary system,—as well as the similar one between the squares of
the tangents of the inclinations, the masses, and square roots
of the axes,—from being mathematically exact. It will be
noted, however, that these equations can only be regarded as
proved for the first powers of the disturbing forces, while the
action of the stars is at least of the order of their squares or
even cubes.

The third chapter is devoted to the evaluation of those terms
in the theory of the perturbations of Mercury by the Earth
whose coefficient, being divided by the square of the difference
between the mean motion of Mercury and four times that of the
Earth, may acquire a notable value by the smallness of its
divisor. The author first examines the indirect method followed
by M. Laplace, which he considers defective and in some meas
sure illusory, and then substitutes a method of his own. After
going through all the very laborious calculations of the analytical
and numerical values of the coefficients he arrives at a final
result, of which he remarks that although it differs very little
from that given in p. 98 of the third volume of the Mécanique
Céleste, and in p. 32 of the tables of Mercury published by
M. Lindenau, yet this apparent accordance is merely a conse-
quence of the excessive smallness of the numerical coefficient
of the term in question, and that his object has rather been to
rectify the analytical formule than the numerical results, by
taking into consideration a// the terms of the same order; with-
out which he considers it very possible to commit material
errors in the final results of such operations.

The fourth chapter has for its object an examination of M.
Laplace’s method of taking account of the square of the disturbs
ing force in the theory of the great inequality of Jupiter and
Saturn.

In this investigation the author is led to conclude, that the
equation connecting the reciprocal perturbations of the mean
motions of two planets, and by which the one may be derived
from the other by a simple multiplication, holds good only when
the first powers of the disturbing forces are considered (a cone
sequence, it may be observed, one might naturally presume
from the form of the maltiplier itself, into which the simple
ratio of the masses only enters as a factor).

[? = = ao |:
M. Plana gives this part of his paper with the fullest possible

detail, in order, he observes, to enable astronomers to verify
F2

68 Scientific Noticés—Chemistry. [Jan.

every part of the developments and calculations ; and on:reduc-
ing his formule to numbers, obtains (not, as he says, without
surprise) a final result, of a contrary sign to that of Laplace, and
only one-third of its amount, the coefficients of the terms cf the
great inequality arising from the square of the disturbing force
being, according to M. Plana,

— 1%9200 and + 55775 for Jupiter
+25’"10386 and — 12/8932 for Saturn.

The fifth chapter contains reflections on the Supplement to
the theory of Jupiter and Saturn in the fourth volume of the
Mécanique Céleste (p. 327—344); in which M. Laplace consi-
ders several terms of the order of the square of the disturbing
force arising from the variation of the excentricities and peri-
helia of the two planets, affected by the argument of the great
inequality. M. Laplace has made use of an indirect but more
expeditious method; and the object of the author in this
chapter (admitting, however, that the indirect method cannot
fail to give results very near the truth) is to estimate their
degree of accordance with those attorded by the direct method.
His conclusions ina numerical point of view agree with those of
Laplace, but he conceives that his analysis is more rigorous, and
his formule better adapted to further developments.

ArTIcLE XII.
SCIENTIFIC NOTICES.

CHEMISTRY.

1. Notice of Dr. Thomson’s New Work.

Arter the severe animadversions on Dr. Thomson’s First
Principles of Chemistry, which appeared lately in a cotem-
porary journal, it is but fair that our readers should know
in what estimation that work is held by our philosophical
brethren of the New World. We, therefore, extract the fol-
lowing from the first number of the 10th volume of the ‘‘ Ameri-
can Journal of Science and Arts,” which has this moment
reached us :—

“ It is not within our. purpose, or present limits, to do any
thing more than briefly mention the admirable work of Dr.
Thomson. For more than twenty years, we have diligently
followed this distinguished author through all the numerous
editions of his Systematic Chemistry, in which he has shown
bimself the vigilant and faithful historian of the science; through
his Annals of Philosophy, one of the best of the numerous

1826.] Scientific Notices—Chemistry. 69

scientific journals of this day, and through his smaller works,
and separate memoirs, with which he has favoured the public ;
and we have listened with high interest to the instructions of
his lecture room.. But after all, predisposed as we were to
expect much from a great effort of the mature age of sucha
master, our expectations have been more than equalled. There
is nothing, the offspring of the present age, which, so far as we
are informed, surpasses this * Attempt to establish the First
Principles of Chemistry by Experiment.’ The vast amount of
labour performed,—-the patient and persevering repetition of
tedious and often difficult processes, frequently to the eighth or
tenth time—the consummate skill discovered in devising and
executing the experiments, and the surprising coincidence of the
results of analysis with the deductions of theory, excite our
astonishment, and prove beyond a question, that chemistry, if
not founded on intuitive, is built on demcnstrative truth. Dr.
Thomson, after performing so much, might well have adopted a
motto preferring higher claims than that which he has chosen.”
—(Silhiman’s Journal.)

2. Discovery of Lithia in the Mineral Waters of Bohemia.
: By M. Berzelius.

An extract of a letter from M. Berzelius to M. Dulong was
read to the Philomatic Society on the 27th of August, 1825, in
which that philosopher states, that on a fresh examination of the
mineral waters of Bohemia, he has discovered that lithia is one
of their constant and essential elements, a substance hitherto
only found ina few minerals. To detect and separate the lithia,
M. Berzelius pours a solution of phosphate of soda into the
mineral water, evaporates to dryness, and redissolves in cold
water all that is soluble in that menstruum. Iflithia be present,
it is left in the state of an insoluble phosphate of lithia and soda.
The illustrious author of this discovery considers it as very pro-
bable that lithia exists also in sea water. The Editor of the
Bulletin des Sciences, from which we have extracted this notice,
states in a note, that he finds in the Alg. Letierbode of Aug. 5,
1825, that M. Mulder announces that he has made some expe-
riments on the water of the Zuiderzee, but has not discovered
any lithia in it.

3. Chemical Examination of Peridot. By M. Laurent Pierre
Walmstedt, Professor of Chemistry at Upsal.

M. Mitscherlich, in his memoir on the relation which exists
between chemical proportions and crystalline forms, has stated
the composition of Peridot, which he there designates as the
only known compound of silica with isomorphous bases with
two atoms of oxygen, in which the quantities of oxygen of the
silica and base are equal. He considers peridot as a silicate of

70 Scientific Notices—~Mineralogy. (Jan.

" magnesia, combined with a certain quantity of silicate of protox-
ide ofiron. In fact the measurement of crystals of the artiticial
silicate of iron and that of peridot demonstrate a perfect
identity.

M. Walmstedt’s analysis of the olivine of Mount Somma fully
confirms these views. It gives

i , Oxygen.
SILER Te h.n\b ¢> droga bisin oh PANG se waecann SOE
MBERESIA» . sy crrcces 44 A4, wnvacn tile

Protoxide of iron. .,.. 15°26 ...... 3°47
Protoxideofmanganese 0-48
FUUMING 5s esate de ven (VIER

100-24
And since the quantity of oxygen in the magnesia is equal to
five times that of the protoxide of iron, and the oxygen of the
silica equal to that of the two bases together, it follows that
olivine consists of one atom of silicate of protoxide of iron, and

five atoms of silicate of magnesia.—(Annales des Sciences
Naturelles.)

MINERALOGY.

4. Comparative Analysis of the Elastic Bitumen of England and
France. By M. Henry, the younger.

The French bitumen was found in October, 1816, by M. Olli-
vier, in the coal mines of Montrelais, distanta few leagues from
Angers, at the depth of 35 fathoms, ina rock of ophiolite, mixed
with veins of quartz and carbonate of lime.

Physical Characters of the two Bitumens.—1. That found in
Derbyshire is in brown, or blackish masses, slightly translucent
on the edges, and appears greenish by transmitted light; it is
more or less soft and elastic; burns very readily with a white
flame, and exhales a bituminous smell. Its specific gravity
varies from 0:9053 to 1:233. 2. The French bitumen presents
nearly similar characters ; its colour is very deep blackish-brown;
it is opaque, inodorous, moderately compact, compressible, ver
tenacious, and particularly very elastic; by transmitted light it
is rather black than greenish. Jt floats on water, and burns
with a clear bluish-white flame and a bituminous odour.

The composition of the two bitumens, according to M. Henry’s
analysis, is, per cent.

English elastic bitumen. French elastic bitumen.
Cerhon.ie eee: 52°250 ...... 58°260
Hydrogen. ........ 7496 ...... 4890
Nitropenscwi vines O164 2%. 2 0104
Oxygen. .......+.. 40°100 36°746

100000 100-000

1826.] Scientifie Notices—Zoology. 71

The great quantity of oxygen found in these bitumens tends
to confirm (says the reporter in the Bulletin des Sciences) Mr.
Hatchett’s opinion as to the formation of elastic bitumen, and,
to acertain point, allows us to compare the action of air on the
liquid bitumen, such as naphtha, petroleum, &c. with that of oxy-
gen on the fixed and volatile oils, which harden by being long
in contact with that agent.—(Bulletin des Sciences.)

Zoouoey.
5. Onthe Species or Varieties of the Human Race.

Linnzus, in his “Systema Nature,” divided man into four
varieties, according to the colour of the skin, giving each variety
the name of the part of the world where it was most common.
Dumérille considers that there were six distinct varieties, which
he names, 1. Caucasian, or European Arabs ; 2. Hyperborean ;
3. Mongolian; 4. American ; 5. Malay ; 6. Ethiopian. Cuvier
reduced the number of varieties to three. Virey, in his History
of Man, divided the genus into two species, according to the
facial angle, noting three varieties, and subvarieties to each
species. Desmoulins has lately further divided the genus man
into eleven species ; and Bory Saint Vincent, in a very elaborate
paper on the varieties and species of this genus, has added four
other species to this extended list, and has given the peculiari-
ties, habits, manners, and appearances of each of the species,
and an account of their probable origin. He divided the genus
into two sections: the first, he called Leiotrichi, or smooth-
haired men, which he again subdivides into those which are
peculiar to the Old World, as 1. Homo Japeticus, the sons of Noah,
which he divided into several races; 2. Homo Arabicus, the
Arabs ; 3. Homo Indicus, the Hindoos; 4. Homo Scythicus, the
Scythians; 5. Homo Sinicus, the Chinese. Secondly, those
smooth-haired men which are eommon to the Old and New
World, as, 6. Homo Hyperboreus, the Laplanders; 7. Homo
Neptunians, the Malays and New Zealanders ; 8. Homo Austra-
lasicus, the New Hollanders. Thirdly, the straight-haired men,
which are peculiar to the New World, as, 9. Homo Colombicus,
the Caraibes; 10. Homo Americanus, the Americans; and
11. Homo Patagonicus, the Patagonians. The second section
he designates by the name of Oulotrichi, or crisped-haired men,
which are usually called Negroes. The white varieties of this
tribe are not known. 12. Homo Githiopicus, the Ethiopian ;
13. Homo Cafer, the Cafre ; 14. Homo Melaninus, the Colchin
Chinese ; and 15. Homo Hottentotus, the Hottentots.

6. Onthe Plumage of the Oyster Catcher.
It is generally considered that the Oyster catcher, the Hama-
topus Ostralogus, Lin. regularly change their plumage at the
commencement of winter, Mr. Boie has lately had reason to

72 Scientific Notices—Miscellaneous. (JAN.

doubt this opinion; for in the month of November, 1821, he
observed a great number of these birds, some of which had
white, and others black throats ; and judging from the consist-
ence of the beaks and bones of them, he is inclined to believe
that the former were the young, and the latter the old specimen
of this bird. He also observed the same difference in the months
of January.and February of the following year.

7. On the Change in the Weight of Eggs during Incubation.

MM. Prevost and Dumas have lately given a very extensive

- paper, with numerous experiments, on the loss of weight which

takes place during incubation, and they come to the following
conclusions :— ay

1. That fecundated and non-fecundated eggs suffer nearly the
same loss in weight during the period of incubation.

2. That the loss follows in both cases a decreasing progression
from the commencement of the incubation.

3. That a remarkable proportion is observed hetween the
duration of the incubation and the daily loss of weight, which is
so much the smaller as the period of incubation is the longer.

4, That the loss of weight appears to depend entirely on the
evaporation, or rather on the chemical alterations which take

_place in the contents of the egg, independent of the evolution of
the fetus, inasmuch as it is proportional to the duration of the
incubation, and no ways connected with the slower or more
rapid developement of the young animal.—(Ann. des Sci. Nat.)

MIscELLANEOUS.
8. Weights and Measures.

Our readers are probably aware of the alteration that is about
to take place in the standard for weights and measures, and the
change is so considerable as to form a distinct era in the metro-
logical annals of this country. We subjoin the most important
facts connected with the subject.

All the powers and regulations contained in the various
former acts, authorizing the searching for, seizing, and destroy-
ing of weights and measures not conformable to the standards,
are, with the penalties and forfeitures, declared to apply to
standards established by these acts.

The standard of weight is the pound troy of 5760 grains, and
the avoirdupois pound is declared to conta 7000 of such grains,
The legislature has therefore made no alteration in the weights ;
but an alteration, to the extent of about one grain in the avoir-
dupois pound, has become necessary, from some supposed inac-
curacy in the old standards kept in the exchequer.

The measures for length and superficies are not altered.

The standard measures of capacity, as well for liquids as dry
goods, are all founded on the imperial gallon, established by

-1826.] - Scientific Notices— Miscellaneous. 73

these acts, and directed to contain 10 lbs. avoirdupois of distil-
led water, at 62° of heat, the barometer being at 30 inches; the
same being in bulk equal te 277-274 cubic inches ; and all other
measures are to be taken in parts or multiples of the said gallon.

The quart to be one-fourth part of the gallon, and to contain
-69°3185 cubic inches, or 21 lbs of water.

The pint to be one-eighth part of the gallon, and to contain
34°65925 cubic inches, or 1+ |b. of water.

Two gallons to be a peck, and to contain 554-748 cubic inches,
or 20 |bs. of water.

Eight gallons to be a bushel, and to contain 2218-192 cubic
inches, or 80 lbs. of water.

Eight bushels to be a quarter of corn, or other dry goods.

No particular form or proportion is directed for the bushel or
other measures used for corn or other goods, usually sold b
strike measure. The strike is directed to be round and straight,
and of the same diameter from end to end.

The standard for coals, lime, fruit, and other goods, commonly
sold by heaped measure, is the aforesaid bushel, to be made
round (we must presume cylindrical), with a plain and even
bottom, and nineteen and a half inches diameter from outside to
outside ; and when used, to be heaped in the form of a cone ;
such cone to be of the height of at least six inches, the outside
of the bushel being the extremity of the base of such cone ; and
including the cone, it will contain 2815.4887 cubic inches, which
gives 597.2967 cubic inches, being 26 and 12-13ths per cent. or
2 and 2-13ths ofa gallon above the corn bushel, for the contents
of the cone.

All other measures used for coals and other goods, sold by
heaped measure, are to be made cylindrical, with the diameter
at the least double the depth thereof, and the height of the cone
three-fourths the depth of the measure.

The proportion that the new imperial measure of capacity
bears to the various old measures is as follows :

—1-9492, say a fifth part, or 20 percent. larger than the wine
measure.

1—59-67, say a sixtieth part, or 12 per cent. smaller than the
beer measure, which difference is equal to little more than one
cubic inch in a quart.

This difference from the old coal measure will be very trifling,
it being only 3-Sths of a pint larger in a chaldron.

A further alteration is made, by inference, from the declared
proportions of the weight and cubical contents of the imperial
gallon, which is interesting to scientific men; viz. that the spe-
cific gravity of water, hitherto established at 1000 ounces per
cubic foot, is now calculated at the rate of 997-1364 ounces per
foot.—(Scientific Gazette.)

74 Scientific Notices—Miscellaneous. [JAN.

9, Mode of securing Anatomical Preparations.

Dr. Macartney, of the University of Dublin, has employed a

thin plate of India rubber, as a covering for preparation jaws in

lace of the former laborious and offensive one by means of
putrid bliudder, sheet-lead, &c.

It is essential that the India rubber should be painted or var-
nished, after which not the slightest evaporation of the spirits
can take place. The material by its elasticity adapts itself to the
variations in the volume of the contents of the jaw from different
temperatures, and thus removes the principal cause of the evapo-
ration of the spirits.

It is probable that leather coated with Indian rubber and
painted would answer as well as the rubber itself, by which the
expence would be greatly diminished.

10. Medical Matriculation at Edinburgh.

From the following statement of the number of medical
matriculations which have taken place at the University of
Edinburgh during the last five years, it will be seen that the
afflux of students to this school still continued to increase.

In, 1820 ta 1B21. op na eed anys vig AO4
1561: 10 ADO. dspam sninnaid DAL
1822 £0 1825s wadasnrienay DOG
1823, to 18246 ye cine ning ew Bd
1824 to 1825 .......2.-0,- 905 to April.

A considerable number are stated to have been in attendance
on the medical classes when this return was made up who had
not then matriculated, many of whom were, however, expected
to do so in the course of the summer sessions.

11. Proportion of Male and Female Children.

M. Bailly, of the French Institute, has lately made a series of
observations connected with the subject of the relative births of
male and female children. From exact registers kept in one
locality, it appears, he says, that there were more female concep-
tions than male conceptions in the months of March and July ;
and these two months, he observes, are, the first on account of
the occurrence of heat; and the second, on account of the heat
of the weather, the part of year least favourable to the activity of
the generative powers, at least with a view to fecundations.

12. Pouillet on Atmospheric Electricity.

Various theories have been formed by meteorologists to
account for the electricity sensibly present in the atmosphere.
Of these, Volta’s was perhaps the only plausible one. That
philosopher was induced to believe, that bodies in passing

»
1826.) Scientific Notices—Miscellaneous. 75

from one state to another undergo a change in their electric
condition ; and he supposed that the electricity lost in storms
was continually being renewed by that produced by evaporation
perpetually going on from the surface, as well of the land as of
the water.

The recent and interesting researches of Pouillet were in-
stituted not merely to ascertain the truth of the Italian pro-
fessor’s hypothesis, he was also desirous of discovering the
efficiency of another cause, which he believed to be of no small
importance in the production of electricity, and of bringing to
proof a theory of his own relative to the distribution and accu-
mulation of this principle in the atmosphere.

Numerous and varied experiments have brought him to the
conclusion, that the mere passage of a body from the solid
form toa state of vapour is unaccompanied by the develop-
ment of electricity; that the result is similar when vapour is
condensed either into the liquid or solid form.

He conceived that Volta, though too accurate an observer to
be mistaken as to the fact of the presence of electricity in his
experiments, was, nevertheless, deceived, as to the cause of
its production, by the formation of carbonic acid, which mixed
with the vapour of water and complicated his experiments.

In 1782 Volta, Lavoisier, and Laplace showed that elec-
tricity was developed during chemical action; but as experi-
ments relating to this point are liable to afford different and
contradictory results from slight differences of circumstances,
the question has been regarded as rather undecided. It be=
came, on this account, an object of special attention with M.
Pouillet. He finds, that in the combustion of charcoal there
is an unequivocal production of electricity—that the acid
produced is in the positive state, while the charcoal always
becomes negative. It is necessary, in order uniformly to obtain
the same results, that the combustion should take place only at
the upper part of the piece of charcoal, and by no means extend
over the whole of it; otherwise the contact both of the
charcoal and of the carbonic acid with the plate of metal
destined to receive the electricity will render the experiment
irregular. To discover whether the electricity rendered
evident in the preceding experiment was to be attributed to
chemical action, or to the conversion of the charcoal from the
solid to the gaseous state, he examined the flame produced
by the combustion of hydrogen, The external part of the
flame constantly exhibits positive, and the interior negative
electricity, a transfer of electricity taking place between the
molecules which are combining, and those which are about to
doso. This fact is supported by a great number of experiments
on the combustion of phosphorus, sulphur, the metals, alcohol,
ther, fat substances, and vegetable matter.

#
76 Scientific Notices— Miscellaneous. Jan.

As plants during vegetation exert a chemical action on the
atmosphere, sometimes converting its oxygen into carbonic acid,
and at others decomposing the carbonic acid already existing in
it, the idea suggested itself, that if electricity were developed in
these processes of vegetation, their very extensive operation
would warrant one in attributing to them a considerable portion
of the electricity of the atmosphere.

To investigate this subject, M. Pouillet examined the vegeta-
tion of seeds in an insulated situation, having a condenser con-
nected withthe soil. Till the germs appeared at the surface, no
signs of electricity could be detected, but as veyetation advanced
it became very evident. For the success of this experiment it
is necessary that the air should be in a state of considerable
dryness. When this does not happen to be the case, the apart-
ment must be artificially dried by quicklime, or some other
abscrbent. Itis obvious that the soil could not acquire one
electric state without the opposite state in a corresponding
degree being communicated to the atmosphere,

If then a languid vegetation on a surface of five or six square
feet be capable of producing very decided effects, may we not
reasonably conclude, that the influence of the same cause
operating over a large portion of the surface of the earth is fully
adequate to the production ofemany of the phenomena which
-we observe ?

A second memoir, by the same author, carries the subject still
further, and exhibits other causes, besides the process of vege-

ation, which contribute to supply the atmosphere with electri-
city. In the first memoir, he had shown that when two bodies
combine, electricity is developed ; in the second, he proves that
similar phenomena attend the separation of bodies which were
previously combined, and he applies this fact to the numerous
instances of decomposition which nature is spontaneously pro-
ducing on the surface of our terraqueous globe.

M. Pouillet, in his experiments connected with this inquiry,
employed two processes. The first resembles that adopted by
Saussure, in his experiments on evaporation, and consists in con-
necting one of the disks of the condenser with the heated vessel
in which the subject of the experiment is to be placed. . By the
other process, the heated vessel is dispensed with, and he makes
use of one of Fresnel’s large lenses to heat the body whilst it
rests on a plate of platina. It should be remarked, that when
vessels of copper or iron, or of other materials on. which the
substances under examination can act chemically are employed,
the result will be a complication of effect by which the pheno-
mena will sometimes be heightened, and at others neutralized.

The results of his experiments are, first, that by mere evapora-
tion, as before stated, whether it be rapid or slow, no signs of
electricity are produced; secondly, that evaporation from an

7
1826.] New Scientific Books. 77°

alkaline solution, however weak, whether it be of soda, potash,
barytes, or strontia, leaves the alkali electrified positively ;
thirdly, that when other solutions, either saline or acid, are
employed, evaporation leaves the body which was combined
with the water, electrified negatively.

- Of the numerous saline solutions which were essayed, that of
muriate of soda was naturally the one which excited the greatest
interest. It formed no exception to the rule. Hence it can
hardly be doubted that evaporation from the surface of the sea
forms one of the most important sources of atmospheric electri-
city. Even lakes and rivers must have their influence, since
their waters are never perfectly pure. .

ARTICLE XIII.
NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.

PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION,

A new Supplement to the Pharmacopeeias of London, Edinburgh,
Dublin, and Paris ; forming a complete Dispensatory and Conspectus,
and including Herbs, Drugs, Compounds, Veterinary Drugs, Patent
Medicines, Perfumery, Paints, Varnishes, &c.; with the Means of
detecting their Adulterations; and the new French Chemicals and
Medicine: being a General Receipt-Book for daily Experience in the
Laboratory and at the Counter. By James Rennie, AM. Lecturer on.
Chemistry, Natural History, and Philosophy, London; Editor of the ®
Quarterly Journal of Foreign and British Medicine, &c.

Travels in Chile and La Plata, including Accounts respecting the
Geography, Geology, Statistics, Government, Finances, Agriculture,
Commerce, Manners and Customs, and the Mining Operations in’
Chile, collected during a Residence of several: Years in those Coun-
tries. By John Miers. 3 vols. 8vo. Illustrated by Original Maps,
Views, &c.

An Introduction to the History of Medicine, from the earliest Period
to the present Time. By O. C. Wood, MD. Extraordinary Member
of the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh. 1 vol. 8vo.

JUST PUBLISHED.

Considerations on Volcanos, their probable Causes. &c. leading to an
Establishment of a new Theory of the Earth. . By G. Poulett Scrope,
Esq. Sec.Geol. Soc. Lond. 8vo, Plates, &c. 12s. '

Researches on Fossil Osteology, in which the Characters of many
Animals are established, whose Species have been destroyed by the
Revolutions of the Globe. By Baron Cuvier. Part 1. Price 1/. 10s.

Illustrations of the Anatomy of the Pelvis. By Alexander Monro,
MD. FRSE. &c. Part I. Folio. 11. 5s. -

The Edinburgh Journal of Medical Science. No. I. . 6s.

#

78 _ New Patents. [Jane

ARTICLE XIV.
NEW PATENTS.

E. Bowring, Goldsmith-street, London, silk manufacturer, and
R. Stamp, Buxted, Sussex, weaver, for improvements in the working,
weaving, or preparing silk and other fibrous materials, used in making
hats, bonnets, shawls, and other materials.—Nov. 17.

J. Guestier, Fenchurch-buildings, for a mode of making paper from
certain substances, which are thereby applicable to that purpose.—
Nov. 17. -

A. Lamb, Princes’-street, London, and W. Suttill, Old Brompton,
flax spinner, for improvements in machinery for preparing, drawing,
roving, and spinning flax, hemp, and waste silk.—Nov. 17.

G. Borradaile, Barge-yard, Bucklersbury, merchant and furrier, for
an improved method of making or setting up of hats or hat bodies.—
Nov. 17.

Count de la Garde, Saint James’s-square, Middlesex, for improved
machinery for breaking or preparing hemp, flax, and other fibrous ma-
terials.— Nov. 24.

J. Eve, Liverpool, engineer, for an improved steam-engine.—
Nov. 24.

H. King, Norfolk-street, Commercial-road, Middlesex, master ma-
riner, and W. Kingston, Dock Yard, Portsmouth, master millwright,
for improved fids for topmasts, gall and masts, bowsprits, &c.—
Nov. 26.

R. J. Tomlinson, Bristol, for frame-work for bedsteads and other
” purposes.—Nov. 26.

M. Lariviere, Princes’-square, Kennington, mechanist, for certain
machinery to be applied to the well-known Stamp’s fly presses, or
other presses, for the purpose of perforating metal plates, and for the
application of such to various useful purposes.—Nov. 28.

W. Pope, Ball-alley, Lombard-street, mathematician, for improve-
ments on wheeled carriages.—Dec. 3.

W. Pope, Ball-alley, mathematician, for improvements in making,
mixing, compounding, improving, or altering soap.—Dec. 3,

H. Berry, Abchurch-lane, London, merchant, for an improved me-
thod, in different shapes or forms, of securing volatile or other fluids,
and concrete or other substances, in various descriptions of bottles and
vessels.—Dec. 3.

E. Edmonds, Bradford, clothier, for improvements on machines for
scribbling and carding sheep’s wool, cotton, or any fibrous articles re-
quiring such process.—Dec. 3.

J. Beever, Manchester, foranimproved gun-barrel.—Dec. 3.

E. Luscombe, East Stonehouse, Devon, merchant, for a method of
manufacturing or preparing oils extracted from certain vegetable sub-
Ee and the application thereof to gas light and other purposes.—

ec. 6.

J. P. Beavan, Clifford-street, Middlesex, for a cement for building
and other purposes,—Dec. 7.

ee

1826.] Mr. Howard's Meteorological Journal. 79

ARTICLE XV.

METEOROLOGICAL TABLE.

—
BakoMETER, THERMOMETER,
1825. Wind. Max. Min. Max. | Min. | Evap. | Rain. ©

oes ee

Noy. 1|N Wj. 30°10 29:97 56 AS

giIN. WI. 30:10 29:18 55 45 — 08
3) W 29:70 29°10 53 32 —
4IN W| 30°15 29°70 4S 28 —_—
5IN WI 3015 29°40 54 30 pa 02
6IN WI 30°45 30°40 58 30 _ =
7IN Wi 29°58 29°45 54 31 — =
Sees 29°45 29:25 50 34 — 60
9} W 29:25 29:01 45 32 — 46
10|IN E| 2960 29°01 47 35 — 40
1iIN WI 30°01 29:60 41 32 —
12IN W] 30°15 3001 38 22 *45
13S Wi 3015 30:06 38 29 —_—
14IN. W]. 30°29 3006 | 40 32 —
15| N 30°38 30°29 43 26 ee
16/8 W) 3058 30°30 42 31 _
17|,..S 30°30 30°15 48 32 —_ 15
1siS W] 30:15 30:08 58 37 _ 08
19} W 30°37 30:08 46 30 —_— —
2018 Wi 30°37 30:02 52 32 —_ 02
2118 Wi 3005 30:02 54 38 = 22
22IN Wi 30:47 30°05 47 28 —
23| W 30°46 30°34 48. | 31 _ _
24IN W) 30°41 30°35 53 40 “43 20
25IN W| 30°41 30°24 46 32 _
26} W 30°24 30°12 45 35 — 10
27, W 30°12 29.50 51 39 — 06
28/5 WI 29°50 29°19 52 40 —_ 54
2955 W| 29°63 29°19 48 33 — 06
30/IN W|I 29:80 29:63 40 22 32
30°47 29:01 58 a2 | 1-20 2:99

The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours,
beginning at 9 A. M. on the day indicated in the first column. A dash denotes that
the result is included in the next following observation.

80. Mr, Howard’s Meteorological Journal. [Jan. 1826.-

REMARES.

Eleventh Month.—1. Fine. 2. Fine: very boisterous al] night. 3. A furious wind
all day from the westward. 4. Fine. 5. Day fine: night stormy. 6. Cloudy.
7. Fine. 8. Cloudy and fine: rain at night. 9, Fine: rain during the night.
10. Rainy morning: wet day. 11. Cloudy. 12. Fine. . 13. White frost. 14. White
frost and foggy: fine. 15. Fine. 16. Fine. 17. Drizzly. 18. Drizzly: a slight
coloured parhelion about ten, a.m. 19. Fine, 20. Foggy morning: fine day.
21. Rainy. 22. Fine. 23. Cloudy morning: fine afternoon. 24. Rainy. 25, Fine.
26. Rainy. 27. Cloudy. 28. Fine, 29. Rainy. 30. Fine.

RESULTS.’
Winds: N,1; NE,1; 8,2; SW, 7; W,6; NW, 13.
Barometer: Mean height

For the month. ..... cesvcesceccecccsercecreeccess 29°952 inches.

Thermometer: Mean height
For the month. ....0.scccsvecovcccccsccssccccceses 40°013°
Evaporation 2. sssccvccccccscccccceccsccce eeevecere eceeveccsevess 1°20 in.

Rain. PH eSHHSHSHHHSHHE THOS ESSE OHS SETHE Sees eesce sees EeSErtsesee 2:99

Laboratory, Stratford, Twelfth Month, 24, 1825. R. HOWARD.

ANNALS

OF

PHILOSOPHY.

FEBRUARY, 1826.

ARTICLE I.

Extension of a Theorem of Fermat. By Mr. W. G. Horner.
(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)

GENTLEMEN, Dec. 26, 1825.

A PROPERTY of prime numbers, which was first stated by
Fermat, and which serves so important uses in the analytical
division of the circle, and is the basis of the theory of decimal
circles, has been demonstrated in two very different ways.
The process of Euler is familiar to all, having been repeated by
subsequent writers on the theory of numbers. But the manner
adopted by Mr. Ivory, in vol.i. of the Math. Repos. possesses
important advantages in regard of conciseness, and of the readi-
ness with which the train of reasoning may be extended to
numbers in general. This circumstance occurred to me some
eighteen or twenty months ago, when pursuing a little specula-
tion on decimal circles; the properties of which may be deve-
loped to their utmost limit by the aid of this discovery. Grate-
ful to the source of my success, I immediately addressed a copy
of my extension of the basis which he had supplied to Mr.
Ivory, but am uncertain if it reached its destination. That
gentleman can, however, have no objection to its appearance in
your respectable work; and being unwilling, not for my own
sake only, that my theorem should remain in silence, I shall

feel obliged by your early inserting it.
Iam, yours very truly,
W. G. Horner.

ai

Theorem.—If P, p, be prime to each other, and » indicate the
number of integers less than p and prime to it, P" — 1 will be
divisible by p.

New Series, vou. X1. G

82 Mr. Horner on a Theorem of Fermat. (Fes.

Demonstration —1. If u is not a multiple of p, neither is u P.
For, conceive the three to be resolved into their prime factors ;
then P, p, have no factors in common; and p contains at least
one factor which is not in zw, and .*, notin u P.

: wes :
2. The remainder of spe commensurate with p, or not, ac-

cording as w is or is not commensurate with p. For, let the
quotient be Q, and the remainder r; then uP —~r=pQ;
and if r and w P be severally divided by any number that mea-
sures p, the two remainders will be identical. Let the common
remainder be O ; thenr and w P, and..°. 7 and wu, since P is prime
to p, are each of them commensurate with p, Let the remainder
be > O; then each of these is incommensurate with Pp:

3. If u — v is not a multiple of p, uP and leave different

remainders. For if both leave the same remainder 7, we shall
have « P — r, and v P — 7, both divisible by p; and .°. their
difference (w = v) P will be divisible by p, which is impossible
ays

)

4. If each term of the series P, 2P,3P, ....(p — 1)P, be
divided by p, all the remainders will be distinct (3). And they
are p — 1 in number, Consequently they comprise every
intéger < p; or, the series of remainders, when progressively
arranged, 1s identical with the natural series of multipliers.

5. Separate this series into two classes, distinguished by
having the multipliers prime to p, or commensurate with it.
The entire set of remainders in each class, if progressively
arranged, will prove identical with the series of multipliers in the
same class. For each of these two series is selected from an
identical set of numbers (4), and by an identical mode of
choice (2).

6. Let the multipliers prime to p be 1, 7, 7, 7:;, &c. and let
M pbe understood to mean some multiple of p. Then each term
of the series P, 7 P, r, P, &c. will have one and only one equiva-
lent in a series of equal extent Mp + 1,M p + 7, Mp +7, &e.
so that the two series are identical. Putting S=1 xrx7r,x 7,
.-+» and taking 7 to indicate the number of terms in each of
the two series just described, we shall have for the product of
all the terms P"S = Mp +S. Wherefore P*S —S = Mp;
that is (P"—1)S = Mp. ButS is entirely composed of factors
prime to p; and is .*. prime to p (1). Consequently it must be
the other factor P* — 1 that is divisible by p.—Q. E.D. i:

Cor.—1. Let m be the number of terms incommensurate with
p, in the natural series 1, 2,3 ....p. Then(P"— 1) x P™=
P? — P™ being divisible by p, it follows that P” and P”, when
divided by p, leave the same remainder.

2. If p is a prime number, x is = p — 1, and we have

| eg 4 Osa ae
——_—— an integer; which is the theorem of Fermat.

1826.] Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations, 83

3. If p is any number whatever, and its prime factors are
a, b, &c.; that 1 aa if p = a* 6° 22.4 we have nm = (a — 1) az-!
x (b — 1) 6°-' x ...,... asis shown by writers on the theory
of numbers.

ArTIcLeE II.

Astronomical Observations, 1828.
By Col. Beaufoy, FRS.

Bushey Heath, near Stanmore.
» Latitude 51° 37' 44°3” North. Longitude West in time 1’ 20:93’.

Observed Transits of the Moon and Moon-culminating Stars over the Middle Wire of
the Transit Instrument in Sidereal Time.

1825. Stars. Transits,
Dec. 15.—30 Aquarii. ........eeee028-5- 21h 54’ 07°84"
15.—2 Aquaril. Pearse eer reese e nt see 22 01 29°79
15.—51 Aquarii... a nswoaat steve 4 ag 15 03-34

15,.—Moon’s First or West Limb.. 21 29°54
15.—166 Aquarii ...... eo oA 5 58 45°45
Mis-b: Piscrtnrmee oo eee. cceiascleiacs 23 11 29-79
17.—19 Pisctuin .........5../..¢234 23. 37 .31°34
17.—26 Piscium.........es02-. «se 23 46 15°28
Ripe PIS cops deo resis sce -- 23 50 23°83
17.—Moon’s First or West Limb .... 23 53 32:96
17.—36 Piscium. .... « ‘pce rO ne 8 0 OT 39°38.
17.—d Pisctunr-s.......+0sceseeees 0 11 40:34
Teh TUN 0. od Sve Seesin cent O 16 45:36
loch PISCHUINMs. cccer coceses sheet JO Saey20'so.
17.—189 Piscium......... Asie - O 39 17°26
19.—75 Pisclum ........eeeeseenes 0 5T 26°95
19.—311 Pis¢ium........sceeeseee eer OT Grav
Sed ieee IRCIUNYE oat nip a\e'siaaa Hiejsicv vaee 1 22 13:00
un 19, —Moon’s First or West Limb.... 1 26 12°73
1D.— 104 Pisctum {.\s).. si e's cles alap 1 29 58-82
ii 19,4 Arietis. ...... sah wb. DI 1 38 47:38
; (Worse Gemind a.spdisseevevesvesee, 6 12, 28:69 .
BD Samy (APTOS 5 Siataiel Ghat ale oo'cn oieiets 6 18 4052
PD fn RA ETIANEA TS) EF Fo. ake 4 /a\Gntetdctavale mele 6° 38 16:08
2h. 36 Geitiin. ..... 2... esses cam 6 Al 09-45
25.—Moon’s Second or East ine. 6 50 55:25
95.—3 Gemit’. S..2 28h 1 OS AF89
25.—56 Gemin, ..sseesevarercives) oT 1 42-99
25.—61 Gemin. ........ =) BERS se 1°16 43:07

Dec. 19. Immersion of Jupiter's first { 13h 02" 04” Mean Time at Bushey
BOLT aor Biase sie so mtdaine ole 13 03 26 Mean Time at Greenwich

Dec. 31, Immersion of Jupiter’ s second f11.'24 59 Mean Time at Bushey.
abtellite,.. |. <aiasbote acedeatodad 2 26 20. Mean Time at Greenwich.

G2

84 Mr Nixononthe [Fres.

ARTICLE Ill.

On the Measurement of Heights by One Barometer, with the
requisite Tables. By Mr. J. Nixon.
(Concluded from p. 42.)
Use of the Tables.

TaBLeE I.—Having given the following observations, to prepare
them for the calculation of the altitude.

Station. Time. Pressure. Mercury. Air,
(No. 1.) Gearstones Inn 9" 15™ ., 29:022 .. (46°)
Cam \Fell .\;....2.:° 13,20 28°188 .. (43) .. 42°

Gearstones Inn 16 15 29°128 .. (45)
Temperature of the air at Gearstones at 13" 20™ = 45°,

Reduction of the Pressures at Gearstones to one Temperature, and
Interpolation to 13> 20™,

Pressure at......++ 16". 15™ .... 29°128, (45°)
Add for 1° of difference of the interior
therms. = (46°) — (45°) .....0.. 003 (See Table 1.)

Pressure ati...‘ ee 16" .15™. ...... 299131 ''(46°)
POS ae Gas oe 9 15 -.... 299022 (46)

Interval cvs Bel er Ss eo) ee

015°6 rise per hour.
Pressure at vo .eeec eee G15 604066 29022

Rage 1a SIV Se ee) gue
Pressure at.,...++.+213'20 = 29°086 (46°)

_ The scale being so fixed as. to render the corrections for capa-
city and capillarity superfluous, the observations prepared for
calculation will be,

Gearstones Inn. .......... 29'086 (46) 45
Gad Hell vo ssi hom psivciesce 28°188 (43) 42
In the following set of: observations, the neutral point of the
barometer was 30 inches; the capacity ,; capillarity -100
inch. _ Hence the pressures must be diminished by the constant
quantity °522 inch. . usd
, of *Caleulation.
Capacity plus 1 = 54, )30°000 neutral point.
“652
Capillarity.......... —°‘100

Constant reduction .. 552

1826.] Measurement of Heights by One Barometer. 85

Observations.

(No.2.) Horton Bridge 8% 40™ .... 29220 (46)
Pen-y-gent. .. 12 10 .... 27-640 (85) 33
Horton Bridge 16 40 .... 29°250 (42)
(No register of the thermometer was kept at Horton Bridge.)
Reduction, &c.

Pressure at Horton Br. at 16" 40™ .. 29°250 (42)
_ Add for 4° of difference of the interior
therms. (46) — (42). .....2.--.-- “O11 (See Table 1.)

Pressure at. ..eeeeeee. 16" 40™ .. 29°261 (46)
Ditto Tiers kee 8 40 ee 29-220 (46)

Interval Sila AC Tk ar a 8 0 1) +041

-005'1 rise per hour.

;

Pressure at........ 8° 40™ ...... 29°220
‘Rise in. deldnuacwdeee 30 e@eeevee 018
Pressure at...2¢...12 10 = 29°238 (46) :

Subtracting from the pressures the constant quantity °552, we
have for calculation,

Horton Bridge (29°238 — :552) = 28°686 (46°)
Pen-y-gent. .. (27°640 — °552) = 27-088 (35) 33

Tastes II, III, and IV.—The observations being prepared
for calculation, enter Table II. with the pressure at the lower
station, neglecting the last figure, and take out the correspond-
ing feet, &c. With the same pressure to the nearest inch, find
by Table III. the value in feet of the rejected figure (or thou-
sandth part of an inch*). To these two quantities, add the
feet, &c. answering to the height of the interior thermometer,
as ce in Table IV.

ind the corresponding quantities for the upper station, and
subtract their sum from that obtained for the lower one, and the
remainder will be the difference of altitude at 0° F.

Then correct the sum of the detached thermometers for the
latitude as indicated in Table V, and multiply the corrected sum
by the altitude at 0° F. and the decimal fraction ‘0012.4 The

* Jt will never cause an error of two feet in the calculation of the altitude to substitute
the last figure itself. Gross errors of computation may be detected by estimating 001
inch of mercury equal to one foot; 1 inch to 1000 feet, &c. See the calculation given,
vol. vi. p. 265, where the error exceeds 2000 feet.

+ Substituted for _ = :0011962. The alteration will never cause a difference of
five feet (additive) in altitudes of 10000 fect.

86 Mr Niron on the. Rs.

difference of level will be equal to the product added to the alti-
tude at 0° F. ,

When the height of the detached thermometer is given only
for the upper station, multiply it by 2, and consider the product
ag the sum of the thermometers. Correct for latitude, and
augment the resulting difference of level by the quantity given
in Table VI.; or divide the approximate altitude by 500, and add
to it the square of the remainder.

Examples.
(No. 1.) Gearstones Inn, (Lat. 55°) Cae Pelta ss as.
29-086 (46) 45° 28-188. (43) 42°
ae ee . ee eS a
7924:5...0.ecerteverr Table-T--+....) 71590 42
COA: oid. ia kheewee ots BIT. peace ++ 180s 0 0 4b
DATO fis’. 2G dy vace We BY thiwicdes 123°5 —
—_—— 87
8046-0 ee 7289.5. 1 Lat.
7289°5

766°5 Difference of altitude at 0° F,
78:0 = 756°5 x 86 x ‘0012

834:5 Altitude in feet of Cam Fell* above Gearstones Inn.
(No. 2.) Horton Bridge. (Lat. 55°) Pen-y-gent.

28-686 (46) 27-088 (35 33°
ces nomena gs ace VV - —— x ee
7587-5 : 6190-0 pater
50 7:0 66
1165 1405 —1 Lat.
7709°0 6337°5 65
6337°5

1371°5 Difference of altitude at 0° F.
_ 1070 = 1371:5 x 65 x ‘0012
1478-5
85 See Table II.

1487-0 feet. Altitude of Pen-y-gent above the Ribble at
Horton Bridge.

Subjoined are given a few observations by Shuckburgh, Roy,
&c. with the heights calculated by the tables, and determined
trigonometrically, or by levelling.

* Seven miles from Ingleton on the Hawes road; Cam Fell is nearly four miles
ENE of Gearstones 5 the station on the loftiest point (limestone) is over Cam-houses.

1826.] Measurement of Heights by One Barometer. 87

Mount Saléve, base.... 28°595 (714) 731). ~
” summit. . 25°707 (754) ei} 2830... 2852 ft.

Leith Pier.......-+.-+. 29'567 (551) 54 i

Arthur’s Seat. .... +++ 28-704 (513) 20. f COBEN, 5» ABS
Caernarvon Quay. .... 29°984 (561) 55: nt
Scdcy Peak tices 26-271 (423) 43, f 206! | +» 9855
Keswick Lake (30ft.ab.) 30°050 (61) 61 9780 9778
Summit of Skiddaw.... 27°156 (57) 50 f~ nit |

In the tables generally made use of by the author, the calcula-
tion is rendered more brief (at some slight expence of accuracy)
by the addition in Table IJ. of a third column, giving the value

of oth part of the preceding one, or the augmentation for 1° of

the sum of the detached thermometers. The difference of the
increment per degree for any two given pressures being multi-
plied by the sum of the thermometers, we obtain the augmenta-
tion in altitude for temperatures above 0°. The quantities in
‘Tables I{]. and IV. are calculated for the mean temperature of
50° F. To render the method more intelligible, an abstract
from the tables is given, together with a type of the calculation.

TABLE II.
Inches. Feet. 1°
BLOW +. bbe CT Sesaceiiea |, TeGE
Ol OLes, beeae . LBbianccen O01
OTHE sap dée., (ee eOec eg th.: OWS
Up he aR & 34°5 owe ee 004
27084... .68. 61900... 14 78. 740
* *«
QO8GSieccreae 1087 Dcessdae GUS
* * %
Horton Bridge. Pen-y-gent,
28-686 (46) 27:088 (35) 30°
——— 1° L—_-~--_-) 1? x2
7587°5 9-08 6190:0 7°40 —-
5°5 7:40 8:0 66
1805 —— 157°5 —1 Lat
1-68 aes
Vizsd 6355°5 65
6355'5 x 1:68
1368-0 109-0
1090 = 1:68 x 65
14770

8-5 = Table VJ.

1485°5 feet. Error — 1°5 feet.

88

ture.

at from the warmer one.

‘Mr. Nixon on the

TABLE I.

To reduce the Pressures at the Reference Station to one Tempera-
. Rule; Add the Correction to the colder Bar, or subtract

{Fes

Diff. of, Inches.

Diff. of | Inches.

temp. | 30°5 | 29-5 | 28°5 | 27-5 || temp.| 30°5 | 29°5 | 28°5 | 27:5
1° | 003 | 003 | -003 | -003 || 119° | -030° | -029 | +028 | -027
2 | -006 | 005 | 005 | -005 || 12 | 033 | -032 | -031 | -030
3 | -008 | 008 | -008 | -007 || 13 | ‘036 | -034 | -033 | -032
A | -O1l | O11 | -010 | O10 || 14 | -038 | -037 | 036 | -034
5 | -014 | -013 | 013 | ‘O12 |} 15 | 041 | 040 | -038 | -037
6 | -016 | -016 | -015 | 015 || 16 | -044 | -042 | -041 | -039
7 | -019 | -019 | 018 | -017 || 17 | -046 | -045 | -043 | -O42
s | 022 | -021 | -020 | -020 || 18 | -049 | -048 | -046 | -044
9 | -025 | -024 | -023 | -022 || 19 | -052 | -050 | -049 | -047
10 | -027 | -026 |-026 | -025 || 20 | -055 | 053 | +051 | -o49
TaBLe Il.
ne Pers Ee eee ee eee ee eee | OTE Seren yee cae ae
Inches. Feet. Inches. Feet. Inches. Feet. Inches. | Feet.
91-00 0 21:37 | 425 21:74 | ° 843 22-11 | 1254
ol 115 38 | 436-5 75| 854 12 | 1265
02 23 39 | 448 16] 865°5 13 | 1276
03 34-5 || 21-40 | 459 17 | 8765 14 | 1287
04 46 Al A10°5 78| 888 15 | 1298
05 58 42] 482 °79.| 899 16 | 1309
06 69°5 43| 4935 || 21-80] 910 17 | 1320
fi 81 44| 504°5 sl} 921 18 | 1331
08 92:5 45 | 516 82} 9325 19 | 1342
09 104 4G | 527°5 83 | 943-5 || 22°20 | 1353
eplo | 1155 A7 | 539 84] 955 21 | 1363°5
11 127 48 | 550 85 |. 966 22 | 13745
12 1385 49 | 561°5 86| 977 23 | 1385°5
13 | 150 21°50 | 573 87 | 988 24 | 13965
14 161-5 51 | 584 88 |- 999 25 | 1407-5
15 173 52 | 5955 89 | 10105 26 | 14185
16 185 S53 | 6065 || 21-90 | 1021-5 27 | 1499-5
17 196 ‘4 | 618 91 | 1039-5 28 | 1440
1s | 208 2 BB] ~— 629 g2 | 1044 29 | 1451
19 | 2I9 “BO 640-5 93 | 1055 22-30 | 1462
21:20 | 231 ‘Bie | 652 94} 1066 31 | 1473
Q1-| 242 58} 663 95 | 1077 32 | 1484
22 |. 253-5 59 | 6745 96 | 1088 33 | 1495
23 | 265 21:60 | 686 97 | 1099 34 | 1506
24 | 27165 61 697 98 | 1110 35 | 15165
25 | 288 62 |. 708 99 | 11215 36 | 1597-5
26 | 2995 63 | 7195 || 92-00 | 1139+5 37 | 15385
27 | 3il 64| 731 Ol | 1143°5 28 | 1549
98 | 3225 65| 742 02 | 1154°5 39 | 1560
29| 334 66 | 753 03 | 11655 || 22-40 | 1571
21:30 | 345 67 | 764-5 04 | 11765 Al | 1582
31 | 3565 68 | 775°5 05 | 11875 42 | 1593
32] 368 69 | 787 06 | 11985 43 | 1603°5
33 | 3795 || 21-70 |. 798 07 | 1210 44 | 1614°5
34] 391 TL | 8095 0s | 1221 A5 | 1625
35} 402 72] 820:5 09 | . 1232 46 | 1636
36] 4135 173 | 832 22:10 | 1243 Aq

1647

1826.] Measurement of Heights by One Barometer.

58
59 | 17765
22°60 | 1787-5

61 1798
62 | 1809
63 | 1820
64 | 1830°5
65} 1841
66 | 1852
67 1863
68 | 1873°5
69 | 1884
22°10 | 1895
va 1905°5
72) 19165
73 | 1927
74 | 1938
75 | 1948-5
76 | 1959
17 | 1970
78 | 1980°5
79) 1991
22-80 | 2002
81} 2012°5
82 | 2023
83 | 2034
84} 2044°5
85 | 2055
86 | 2066
87 | 20765
88 | 2087
89 | 2098
22:90 | 21085
91} 2119
92] 2130
93 | 2140°5
94] 2151
95 | 2161°5
96 | 2172
97 | 2183
98 | 2193°5
99 | 2204
23:00 | 2214-5
Ol | 2225
02 | 2233°5
03 | 2246
‘04 | 2257
05 | 2267°5
2278

2288°5

Inches.

Feet. Inches.
2299 23-68
2309°5 69
2320 23°T0
2330°5 val
2341 "2
2352 13
2362 1A
2373 15
2383 76
2394 vai
2404-5 78
2415 19
2425+5 23°80
2436 81
2446 82
QA57T 83
2467 84.
2478 S35
2488 86
24985 87
2509 88
2519°5 89
2530 23:90
2540°5 91
2551 92
2561°5 93
2572 94
2582 95
2502-5 96
2603 97
2613-5 98
2624 99
2634 24-00
2644-5 ol
2655 02
2665-5 03
2676 04
2686 05
2696-5 06
2107 07
27175 08
2728 09
2738 24:10
QT48°5 il
2159 12
9769 13
QT19°5 14
2790 15
2800 16
28105 lq
2821 18
2831 19
Q841°5 94:20
2852 21
2862 92
2872°5 23
2882-5 24
2893 25
2903

2913-5

Feet.
2924
2934
2944-5
2955
2965
9975
2985°5
2996
3006
3016
3026°5
3037
3047
3057
3067°5
3077-5
3088
3098
3108
3118°5
3128°5
3139
3149
3159
3169
3179°5
3189°5
3200
$210
3220
3230
3240°5
3250°5
3260°5
3271
3281
3291
3301
3311°5
3321°5
3331°5
3342
3352
3362
3372
2382
3392
3402
3412-5
3422-5
3432-5
3449'5
3452-5
3462°5
3473

3483
3493
3503
3513
3523

Inches.

=

89

Feet.

3533
3543
3553
3563
35713
3583
3593
3603
3613
3623
3633
3643
3653
3663
3673
3683
3693
3703
3713
31723
3732°5
3742-5
3752°3
3762°5
31772°5
3782°5
3792
3802
3812
3822
3822
3842
3852
3861°5
2871°5
3881°5
3891
3901
3911
3921
3931
3940°5
3950°5
3960
3970
3980
5990
3999°5
4009-5
4019°5
A029
4039
4049
4058-5
4068-5
4078
4088
4098
ALOT'S
ALITS

90° Mr. Nixon on the (Fes.

Inches. Feet. Inches. Feet. Inches. Feet. Inches.| Feet.

24°88 A127 25:48 AT0T'5 26:08 5274 26:68 | 5827*b
89 A137 49 ATIT 09 5283°5 69 | 5837
24:90 | 4147 25°50 | 47265 26:10 | 5292°5 26:70 | 5846.
91 A156°5 51 AT36 1] 5302 71 | 5855
92 4166-5 52 AT45:5 12 5311 72 | 5864
‘93 A176 53 AT55 13 5320°5 73 | 5873
94 A186 54 AT64°5 14 5330 14 | 5882°5
95 A195°5 55 ATTA 15 5339 75 | 5891-5
96 4205°5 56 4783°5 16 5348-5 76 | 5900-5
97 4215 57 A793 7 5358 TT | 5909°5
98 | 4225 58 | 4802°5 18 | 5867 78 | 5919
99 4234.5 59 A812 19 5376°5 79 | 5928
25°00 AQ44:5 25-60 4822 26°20 5386 26°80 | 5937,
ont 4254 61 A831 21 5395 81 | 5946
02 | 4264 62 | 4841 22 | 5404 82 | 5955
03 | 4273°5 63 | 4850 23 | 5413-5 83 | 5964
04 | 4283 64 | 4860 24 | 5423 84 | 5973
05 4293 65 4869 25 5432 85 | 5982
06 4302°5 66 4878°5 26 §441-5 86 | 5991-5
OT 4312°5 67 4888 27 54505 87 | 6000°5
08s 4322 68 4897°5 28 5460 88 | 6009-5
09 | 4332 69 | 4907 29 | 5469 89 | 6018°5
25510 | 43415 25°70 | 49165 26:30 | 5478°5 26:90 | 6027°5
1] 4351 71 4926 31 5487-5 91 | 6036-5
12] 4361 72 | 4985°5 32 | 5497 92 | 6045°5
13 4370'5 13 4945 33 5506 93 | 6055
14} 4380 74 | 4954-5 34 | 55155 94 | 6064
15} 4390 75 | 4964 35 | 5524-5 95 | 6073
16} 4399°5 76 | 4973°5 36 | 5534 96 | 6082
17 4409°5 77 4983 37 5543 97 | 6091
18 4419 78 4992: 38 5552-5 98 | 6100
19 | 4428°5 79 | 5002 39 | 5561-5 99 | 6109
25°20 4438°5 25°80 5011 26:40 5571 27:00 | 6118
g1 |} 4448 81 | 5020-5 Al 5580 Ol | 6127
92 | 4A457'5 - 82 | 5030 42} 5589 02 | 6136
23 AAGBT 83 5039°5 43 5598°5 03 | 6145
94 | AAT7 84 | 5049 44 | 5607-5 04 | 6154
25 |} 4486°5 85 | 5058 45 | 5617 05 | 6163
26 | 4496 86 | 5067°5 46 | 5626 06 | 6172
27 4506 87 5077 AT 5635 OT | 6181
98 4515°5 88 5086°5 48 5644°5 08 | 6190
29 A525 89 5096 49 5653°5 09 | 6199
25°30 | 4535 25:90 | 51055 26:50 | 5663 27-10 | 6208
31} 45445 91} 5115 51) 5672 1] | 6217
32 | 4554 92 | 5124 52 | 5681 12 | 6226
33 A563°5 93 5133°5 53 5690°5 13 | 6235
34 | 4573 94 | 5148 54 | 5699-5 14 | 6244
35 A583 95 5152 ¢ 55 5709 15 | 6253
386 45992°5 96 5161°5 56 5718 16 | 6262
37 A602 9T 5171 57 5727 17 | 6270°5
38 | 4611°5 98 | 5180-5 58 | 5736 18 | 6279-5
39 4621 99 5190 59 5745'5 19 | 6288°5
25:40 4631 26-00 5199 26°60 57545 27°20 | 6297°5
Al 4640°'5 ol 5208°5 61 5763°5 21 | 6306°5
42 | 4650 02 |} 5218 62 | 5773 22 | 6315°5
43 | 4659°5 03 | 5227 63 | 5782 23 | 6324-5
44 4669 O4 52365 64 5791 24 | 6333-5
45 | 4678°5 05 | 5246 65 | 5800 25 | 6342
46 | 4688 06 | 5255 66 | 5809-5 26 | 6351

47 | 4698 OT | 5264:5 67 | 58185 27 | 6360

6422°5
6431-5
6440°5
6449
6458
6467
6476
6485
6493-5
6502°5
6511-5
6520
6529
6538
6547
6555.5
6564-5
6573'5
6582
6591
6600
6609
6617°5
6626-5
6635
6644
6653
6662
6670-5
6679°5
6688
6697
6706
6714-5
6723°5
6732
6741
6750
6158°5
6767°5
6776
6785
6793°5
6802'5
6811
6820
6829
6837-5
6846
6855
6864
6872°5
6881
6890

Inches

Feet,

6898-5
6907°5
6916
6925
6933-5
6942
6951
6960
6968°5
6977
6986
6994°5
7003
1012
7020-5
7029
7038
1046:5
1055°5
7064
1072-5
7081-5
7090
7098-5
7107-5
7116
71245
7133
7142
7150°5
T159
7168
1176-5
7185
7194
7202°5
9211
T219°5
7228
7237
7245°5
7254
71262°5
7271
7280
7288°5
7297
7305°5
7314
1322°5
7331°5
1340
7348°5
1357
7365'5
7374
1383
1391-5
7400
TA08'5

Inches.

28-48
49

Feet.
TAIT
T425°5
7484
7442'5
7451
7460
7468
T4717
T485
7494
7502°5
7511
T5195
7528
7536-5
7545
15535
7562
75710°5
T5179
T587°5
7596
7604°5
1613
7621
7630
7638
7646'5
7655
7663°5
7672
7680°5
7689
7697°5
7706
T7145
1723
7731
T739°5
TITAS
1156°5
7765
1773°5
7782
7790
7798°5
7807
7815-5
7824
7832°5
7841
7849
18575
1866
T8TA5
7882°5
7891
7899°5
7908
7916

Measurementof Heights by One Barometer.

Inches.

29-08

91

Feet.

7924-5
7933
79415
7950
7958
7966:5
7975
1983
7991-5
8000
8008
8016°5
8025
8033
8041°5
8050
8058
8066°5
8075
8083
8091°5
8100
8108
8116-5
8124°5
8133
8141
81495
8158
8166
8174-5
8182-5
8191
8199
8207°5
8216
8224
8232°5
8240'S
8249
8257
8265°5
8273°5
8282
8290
8298°5
83065
8315
8323
83315
8339°5
8348
8356
8364
83725 -
8380'5
8389
8397
8405
8413°5

92 Mr. Nixon on the {Fes.

Inches, Feet. Inches. Feet. Inches. Feet. Inches.| Feet.
29:68 8421°5 30:01 8691 30°34 8957 30°67 | 9220°5
69 | 8430 02 | 8699 35 | 8965 68 | 9228°5
29-70 8438 03 8707 36 8973 69 | 9236-5
val 8446 04 8715 37 8981 30:70 | 9244-5
72 8454°5 05 8723'5 38 8989 T1 | 9252
73 8462°5 06 8731°5 39 8997 72 | 9260
441 8471 OT | 8739°5 30°40 | 9005 73 | 9268
15 8479 08 8748 Al 9013 T4 | 9276
76 | 8487 09 | 8756 42| 9021 75 | 9284
"7 | 8495°5 30°10 | 8764 43 | 9029 76 | 9292
18 8503°5 ll 8772 44 9037 77 | 9300
"9 8512 12 8780 A5 9045 78 | 9307°5
29-80 8520 13 8788 A6 9053 79 | 9315°5
‘gl 8528 14 8796 AT 9061 30°80 | 9323°5
82 | 8536-5 15 | 8804 48} 9069 81 | 9331°5
83 8544°5 16 | 8812°5 49 | 9077 82 | 9339
84 85525 17 8820°5 30°50 9085 83 | 934T
85 8561 18 8828°5 51 9093 84 | 9355
86 8569 19 8836°5 52 9101 85 | 9363
87 8577 30°20 8844°5 53 9109 86 | 9371
88 | 8585 2) 8852-5 54] 9117 87 | 9378°5
89 | 8593°5 22 | 8860°5 55 | 9125 88 | 9386°5
29°90 8601°5 23 8869 56 9133 89 | 9394-5
91} 86095 24 | 8877 57 | YIAl 30:90 | 9402°5
92 8618 25 8885 58 9149 91 | 9410
93 8626 26 8893 59 9157 92 | 9418
94 8634 QT 8901 30:60 9165 93 | 9496
95} 8642 28 | 8909 61 9173 94 | 9434
96 8650 29 8917 62 9181 95 | 9442
97 8658°5 30°30 8925 63 9189 96 |} 94495
98 | 8666-5 31 8933 64 | 9196-5 97 | 9457°5
99} 8674°5 32 | 8941 65 | 9204-5 98 | 9465°5
30:00 $683 33 8949 66 9212°5 30:99 | 9473
TaBLe III.
Inches,
Pressure.} *O01 002 | -003 ‘004 ‘005 ‘006 “007 -008 | :009
Feet.
21 in 1:0 85 3:5 4°5 6:0 7:0 8:0 9-5 105
22 1:0 2-0 3:5 4:5 53 65 8:0 9-0 | 10-0
23 1:0 2:0 3:0 4:0 55 6:5 15 8-5 95
D4 o 1:0 2-0 3°0 4:0 Bit 6:0 7-0 8-0 9-0
25 1:0 2°0 3:0 4:0 5:0 6-0 7-0 8-0 8-5
26 1:0 2-0 30 3°5 AS 65 6:5 75 8:5
27 1-0 2-0 2°5 3°5 AS 55 65 7:0 8-0
28 1-0 1-5 2-5 jaa Ad 5-0 6:0 7-0 8-0
29 1-0 15 ary 3°5 AO 50 6-0 65 u Gs)
30 1:0 Is) 25 3:0 4:0 5:0 5:5 6°5 yas)
31 1:0 15 2°5 3-0 4:0 45 55 6:5 70

1826.]

Measurement of Heights by One Barometer.

Feet.
195°0
194-0
193°0
192-0
190°5
189°5
188°5
187°5
186°5
185°5
184:0
183-0
182-0
181°0
180-0
179°0
177°5
176°5
175°5
1745
173°5
1720
171-0
1700
169-0
168-0
167°0
165-5
1645
163°5

Feet.
162°5
161-5
160-0
159°0
158-0
157°0
156-0
155-0
153°5
152°5
151°5
150°5
149°5
148°5
147°0
146-0
1450
144-0
143:0
141°5
140°5
139°5
138°5
137-5
136°5
135-0
134-0
133-0
132°0
1310

Tasue lV.

For the interior Thermometer.

Feet.
130-0
128-5
127°5
126°5
125°5
124+5
123°5
122-0
1210
120-0
119-0
1180
1165
115°5
114°5
113°5
112°5
111°5
1100
109-0
108-0
107°0
106-0
105-0
103°5
102°5
101-5
100-5

99°5

98-5

Feet.
55° «97:0
554 96:0
56 95:0
564 94-0
57 93:0
57% 92-0
58 90°5
585 89°5
59 = 885
594 87°5
60 865
60% 85°5
61 84-0
61$ 83:0
62 820
622 81-0
63 «80:0
634 79.0
64 780
644 76°5
650 275:5
654 74:5
66 73°5
664 72:5
67 = T1°5
673 70:0
68 69-0
685 68-0
69 67:0
695 66:0

TABLE V.
For the Latitude.

Equation of the Sum of the detached Thermometers.
In lat. 0° to 5° Add 23° F.
6

13 Qn
ya" 18 Qn
19 22 2

23 26 13
27 29 ies
30. 32 14
33 35 1

36-38 03
39 41 0x
42 «48 04
4445 0

In lat. 45° to
AT

49
52
55
58
61
64
68
72
77
85

A8
51
54
5T
60
63
67
71
16
84
90

Feet.
65:0
63-5
62°5
61°5
60:5
59°5
58°5
57:0
56:0
55:0
54:0
53-0
52:0
50:5
A9*5
A8*5
AT*5
A46'5
45°5
AA*5
43-0
42-0
Al-O
40:0
39-0
38-0
36°5
35°5
34°5
33°5

46° Subtract 0° F.
1

02

93

S= DRISD ie Sep SD
SSSA AAE

94

Alt. Feet, Alt.
500 + 1 1871
701 2 1937
866 3 2000

-1000 4 2062

1118 5 2121

1225 6 2180

1323 7 2238

1414 8 2291

1500 9 2345

158i 10 2398
1658 11 2450
1732. 12 2500
1803 13 2550

Taste VI.

Augmentation of the Altitude calculated with double the detached
Thermometer at the upper Station.

Alt. Feet.
2598 + 27
2646 28
2693 29
2739 30
2784 31
2828 32
2872 a0
2916 34
2958 35
3000 36
3041 37
3082 38
3123 39

Alt. Feet.
3162 + 40
3202 41
3240 AQ
3279 43
3317 44
3354 45
3391 46
3428 AT
3464 48
3500 49
3536 50
3571 51
3606 52

ARTICLE IV.

Meteorological Table kept at Bushey Heath in 1825. »

By Col. Beaufoy, FRS.
(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)

GENTLEMEN,

Col. Beaufoy’s Meteorological Table for 1825. [Fant

Tue barometer, thermometer, and winds, were observed at
nine o’clock in the morning, at which hour the temperature of
the external air is nearly the same as the mean temperature :

see Columns 3 and 8.

The coldest day was March 17, thermometer 24°3° ; and the
hottest, July 19, thermometer 92°5°.

et Bees ts

|
Months. |Barom.|Ther. | Rain. | Evap.

Inches. Inches. |Inches.
Jan... .{29°T37 | 37:4] O°TTS| 1°20
Feb. .../29°658} 36:1} 0-810} 1°28
March. .|29°289] 38-6} 1:454} 2:07
April., ./29°870 49°3| 2°333] 4-2]
May... 29:496| 53-6) 3:585}] 3°79
June. ../29°531} 59-1) 1-467] 3-07
July. ..|29°671| 64:8} 0-062] 6-43
August .|29°475| 61-0} 2-725] 4-00
Sept. ..|29°429] 59°7| 3°608| 3:00
Oct ..../29°500| 50°0} 2°404) 2-04
Nov... .{29°238} 40:4] 2°884| 1°45
Dec... ./29:074| 37-4} 3-200] 1:20

Year.

Six’s ‘Cherm.

Winds,

Min. | Max. | Mean, \N.| NEJE.|SE.|S. |SW. |W.) NW.

34°3°| 42-19} 38-20] 2} 4) 1/110
34:8 |42°3 | 38:1 | 1) 2/26) 1
34:2 | 45-T | 40:0 | 1) 13 | 2}3 ] 0
42-1 |58:5 | 503 | 0} 8 | 2/412
47-9 | 62-6 | 55°3 | 1) 13} 2)3]0
5t°1 |) 6b°3 ) GET | 1) et | Olad 0
56-7 | 748 | 65'S | 1; 16) 2:1 1/0
56-2 | 69°] | 62-6 | 1} 6 | 3,1]0
55:2: |'65'9 | 60:5 *) OS) SFB" t 4A
46-4 | 56-0 | 51-2 | 1] 2) 0; 4) 1
36°7 |46°9 | 41°38 | 1} 3] 0} 140
37-4 | 44-0 | 37-4 | O] 5 | 2) 410
10| 84 {18

|

29°497 48-9 25°31 |33°T4 | 44-91/ 51-19) 50-05

—

_
OPC

Oo Or 0D 2D me DD OD

——|—| —— |

—
RODATE ENERO

ee

32 | 5)112-/33 | 69

1826.) Onnew Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen, &c. 98

ARTICLE V.

On new Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen, and on certain
other Products obtained during the Decomposition of Oil by
feat. By M. Faraday, F.R.S. Cor. Mem. Royal Academy
of Sciences of Paris, &c.

(Concluded from p. 50.)

Amone the liquid products obtained from the original fluid
was one which, procured as before mentioned, by submitting to
0° the portion distilling over at 180° or 190°, corresponded with
the substance already described, as to boiling points, but
differed from it in remaining fluid at low temperatures ; and I
was desirous of comparing the two together. I had no means
of separating this body from the bi-carburet of hydrogen, of
which it would of course be a saturated solution at 0° Its
boiling point was very constantly 186°. In its general charac-
ters of solubility, combustibility, action of potassium, &e. it
agreed with the substance already described. Its specific gra-
vity was 0°86 at 60°. When raised in vapour 1-11 grain of it
gave 1:573 cubic inches of vapour at 212°, equal to 1:212 cubie
inch at 60°. Hence 100 cubic inches would weigh about 91+6
grains, and its specific gravity would be 43:25 nearly. In
another experiment, 1°72 grain gave 2-4 cubic inches at 212°,
equal to 1°849 cubic inch at 60°; from which the weight of 100
cubic inches would be deduced as 93 grains; and its specific
gravity to hydrogen as 44 to 1. Hence probably the reason
why, experimentally, the specific gravity of bi-carburet of
hydrogen in vapour was found higher, than by theory it would
i HE to be when pure.

ulphuric acid acted much more powerfully upon this sub-
stance than upon the bi-carburet : creat heat was evolved, much
discolouration occasioned, and a separation took place into a
thick black acid, and a yellow lighter liquid, resisting any
further action at common temperatures.

0:64 grain of this substance was passed over heated oxide of
copper; 4°51 cubic inches of carbonic acid gas were obtained,
and 0°6 grain of water. The carbonic acid and water are equi-
valent to

Carbon «...6..004-0+++ 0°573176 or 8764
SLYOULOZOD, jase tin «5,00 -» 0066666 = 1:

but as the substance must have contained much bi-carburet of
hydrogen, it is evident that, ifin a pure state, the carbon would
fall far short of the above quantity, and the compound would
approximate of course to a simple carburet of hydrogen contain-
ing single proportionals.

96 Mr. Faraday on new Compounds » [FEs.

New Carburet of Hydrogen.

Of the various other products from the condensed liquor, the
next most definite to the bi-carburet of hydrogen appears to be
that which is most volatile. If a portion of the original liquid
be warmed by the hand, or otherwise, and the vapour which
passes off be passed through a tube at 0°, very little uncon-
densed vapour will go on to the mercurial trough ; but there will
be found after a time a portion of fluid in the tube, distinguished
by the following properties. Though a liquid at 0°, it upon
slight elevation of temperature begins to boil, and before it has
attained 32°, is all resolved into vapour or gas, which may be
received and preserved over mercury.

This gas is very combustible, and burns with a brilliant flame,
The specific gravity of the portion I obtained was between 27
and 28, hydrogen being 1: for 39 cubic inches introduced into
an exhausted glass globe were found to increase its weight 22:4
grains at 60° F. bar. 29°94. Hence 100 cubic inches weigh
nearly 57:44 grains.

When cooled to 0° it condensed again, and inclosed in this
state in a tube of known capacity, and hermetically sealed up,
the bulk of a given weight of the substance at common tempe-
ratures was ascertained. This compared with water gave the
specific gravity of the liquid as 0°627 at 54°. It is therefore
among solids or liquids the lightest body known.

This gas or vapour when agitated with water is absorbed in
small quantities. Alcohol dissolves it in large quantity; and a
solution is obtained, which, upon the addition of water, :effer-
‘vesces, anda considerable quantity of the gas is liberated. The
alcoholic solution has a peculiar taste, and is neutral to test

apers.

Olive 6il dissolves about six volumes of the gas.

Solution of alkali does not affect it ; nor does muriatic acid.

Sulphuric acid condenses the gas in very large quantity ; one
volume of the acid condensing above 100 volumes of the vapour.
Sometimes the condensation is perfect, at other times a small
quantity of residual gas is left, which burns with a pale blue
flame, and seems to be a product of too rapid action. Great
heat is produced during the action; no sulphurous acid is
formed ; the acid is much blackened, has a peculiar odour, .and
upon dilution generally becomes turbid, but no gas is evolved.
A permanent compound of the acid with carbon and hydrogen
is produced, and enters as before mentioned into combination
with bases.

A mixture of two volumes of this vapour with 14 volumes of
pure oxygen was made, and a portion detonated in an eudio-
meter tube. 88 volumes of the mixture diminished by the
spark to 5°7 volumes, and these by solution of potash to 1:4

1826.] ‘of Carbon and Fhijdrogen, &c. 97

volume, which was oxygen. Hence 7:4 volumes had been
consumed, consisting of

Vapour of substance .....-+seeeseees
OXYZEN!. 2. wade ater aHonetenrcress
Carbonic acid formed..........eee00-
Oxygen in carbonic acid. .........065
Oxygen combining with hydrogen. ....
Diminution by spark. ......0..0050543

This is nearly as if 1 volume of the vapour or gas had required
6 volumes of oxygen, had consumed 4 of them in producing 4
of carbonic acid gas, and had occupied the other 2 by 4 of
hydrogen to form water. Upon which view, 4 volumes or pro-
portionals of hydrogen = 4, are conibined with 4 proportionals
of carbon = 24, to form one volume of the vapour, the specific
gravity of which would therefore be 28, Now this is but little
removed from the actual specific gravity obtained by the preced-
ing experiments; and knowing that this vapour must contain
small portions of other substances in solution, there appears no
reason to doubt that, if obtained pure, it would be found thus
constituted.

As the proportions of the elements in this vapour appear to be
the same as in olefiant gas, it became interesting to ascertain
whether chlorine had the same action upon it as on the latter
body. Chlorine and the vapour were therefore mixed in an
exhausted retort: rapid combination took place, much heat was
evolved, and a liquor produced resembling hydro-chloride of
carbon, or the substance obtained by the same process from
olefiant gas. It was transparent, colourless, and heavier than
water. It had the same sweet taste, but accompanied by an
after aromatic bitterness, very persistent. Further, it was com-
posed of nearly equal volumes of the vapour and chlorine: it
could not therefore be the same as the hydro-chloride of carbon
from olefiant gas, since it contained twice as much carbon and
hydrogen. It was therefore treated with excess of chlorine in
sun-light: action slowly took place, more chlorine combined
with the substance, muriatic acid was formed, and ultimately a
fluid tenacious triple compound of chlorine, carbon, and hydro-
gen was obtained, but nochloride of carbon. This is a remark-
able circumstance, and assists in showing, that though the
elements are the same, and in the same proportions as in olefiant
gas, they are in a very different state of combination.

2 EROS
rm © W 02 0)

‘The tension of the most volatile part of the condensed oil gas
liquid, and indeed of the substance next beneath olefiant gas in
lasticity existing in the mixture constituting oil gas, appears to
e equal to about four atmospheres at the temperature of 60°
New Series, vou. x1. H

98 Mr. Faraday on-new Compounds [Fes

To ascertain this a tube was prepared, like the one delineated in
the sketch, Fig. 1, containing a mercurial guage at a, c, and the
extremities being open. It was then cooled to 0° from a to 6,

igh,

oe

hiy.2.

b ad a
and in that state made the receiver into which the first product
from a portion of the original fluid was distilled. The part at b
was then closed by a spirit lamp; and having raised enough
vapour to make it issue at c, that was also closed, The instru-
ment now placed as at Fig. 2, had a and d cooled to 0°, whilst
the fluid collected in 6 was warmed by the hand or the air; and
when a portion had collected in d sufficient for the purpose, the
whole instrument was immersed in water at 60°; and before the
vapour had returned and been all dissolved by the liquid at 6,
the pressure upon the guage within was noted. Sometimes the
fluid at d was rectified by warming that part of the tube, and
cooling a only, the reabsorption at 6 being prevented or rather
retarded, in consequence of the superior levity of the fluid at d,
so that the first portions which returned to 6 lay upon it ina
stratum, and prevented sudden solution in the mass below. This
difference in specific gravity was easily seen upon agitation, in
consequence of the striz produced during the mixture.
Proceeding in this way it was found, as before stated, that
the highest elastic power that could be obtained from the sub-
stances in the tube, was about four atmospheres at 60°; and as
there seems no reason to doubt, but that portions of the most
volatile substances in oil gas beneath olefiant gas were contained
in the fluid, inasmuch as even olefiant gas itself is dissolved by
it in small proportions, it may be presumed that there is no sub-
stance in oil gas much more volatile than the one requiring a
pressure of four atmospheres at 60°, except the well-known
compounds ; or, in other words, that there is not a series of sub-
stances passing upwards from this body to olefiant gas, and
possessing every intermediate degree of elasticity, as there

Note.—The particular inclination of the parts of the tube one to another was given,
that the fluid when required might be returned from @ to d without passing on tod.

1826.) of Carbon and Hydrogen, &c.. 99

seems to be from this body downwards, to compounds requiring
250° or 300° for their ebullition.

In reference to these more volatile products, I may state that
Ihave frequently observed a substance come over in small quan-
tity, rising with the vapour which boils off at 50° or 60°, and
crystallizing in spicule im the receiver at 0°. A temperature of
8° or 10° causes its fusion and disappearance. It is doubtless a
peculiar and definite body, but the quantity is extremely small,
or else it is very soluble in the accompanying fluids. I have not
yet been able to separate it, or examine it minutely.

I ventured some time since upon the condensation of various
gases,* to suggest the possibility of forming a vapour lamp,
which containing a brilliantly combustible substance, liquid at
a pressure of two, three, or four atmospheres at common tem-
peratures, but a vapour at less pressure, should furnish a con-
stant light fora length of time, without requiring high, or involy-
ing inconstant pressure. Such a lamp I have now formed, feed-
ing it with the substance just described ; and though at present
it is only a matter of curiosity, and perhaps may continue so,
yet there is a possibility that processes may be devised, by
which the substance may be formed in larger quantity, and
render an application of this kind practically useful.

On the remaining Portions of the condensed Oil Gas Liquor.

It has been before mentioned, that by repeated distillations
various products were obtained, boiling within limits of temper-
ature which did not vary much; and which when distilled were
not resolved into other portions, differing far from each other in
volatility, as always happened in the earlier distillations. Though
conscious that these were mixtures, perhaps of unknown bodies,
and certainly in unknown proportions ; yet experiments were
made on their composition by passing them over oxide of copper,
in hopes of results which might assist in suggesting correct
views of their nature. They all appeared to be binary compounds
of carbon and hydrogen, and the following table exhibits the
proportions obtained: the first column expressing the boiling
temperature at which the products were distilled, as before men-
tioned ; the second the hydrogen, made a constant quantity ;
and the third the carbon.

1409 6 ceitetnd

150) god

ACUI ee

PVG esd :

Lo UP SEP thas ei ae

200. ¢s'dlcsiend

ZITO sintaen batedete 32,50 BAD]

SA Seagate deat MAO

* Quarterly Journal of Science, xvi. 240.
H 2

100 Mr, Faraday on new Compounds ‘[Fes.

These substances generally possess the properties before
described, as belonging to the bi-carburet of hydrogen. They
all resist the action of alkali, even that which requires a temper-

ature above 250° for its ebullition ; and in that point are strongly

distipguished from the oils from which they are produced. Sul-
phuric acid acts upon them instantly with phenomena already
briefly referred to.

Dr. Henry, whilst detailing the results of his numerous and
exact experiments in papers laid before the Royal Society, men-
tions in that read Feb. 22, 1821,* the discovery made by Mr.
Dalton, of a vapour in oil gas of greater specific gravity than
olefiant gas, requiring much more oxygen for its combustion,
but yet condensible by chlorine. Mr. Dalton appears to consi-
der all that was condensible by chlorine as a new and constant
compound of carbon and hydrogen ;-but Dr. Henry, who had
observed that the proportion of oxygen required for its combus-
tion varied from 4*5 to 5 volumes, and the quantity of carbonic
acid produced, from 2*5 to 3 volumes, was inclined to consider it
as a mixture of the vapour cf a highly volatile oil with the
olefiant and other combustible gases ; and he further mentions,
that naphtha in contact with hydrogen gas will send up such a
vapour; and that he has been informed, that when oil gas was
condensed in Gordon’s lamp, it deposited a portion of highly
volatile oil.

A writer in the Annals of Philosophy, N. 8. iii. 37, has
deduced from Dr. Henry’s experiments, that the substance, the
existence of which was pointed out by Mr. Dalton, was not a
new gas sui generis, “ but a modification of olefiant gas, consti-
tuted of the same elements as that fluid, and in the same propor-
tions, with this only difference, that the (hea atoms are
triple instead of double :” and Dr. Thomson has adopted this
opinion in his Principles of Chemistry. This, I believe, is the
first time that two gaseous compounds have been supposed to
exist, differing from each other in nothing but density; and
though the proportion of 3 to 2 is not confirmed, yet the more

‘important part of the statement is, by the existence of the com-

pound, described at page 96, which though composed of carbon
and hydrogen in the same proportion as in olefiant gas, is of
double the density.+

* Philosophical Transactions.

+ In reference to the existence of bodies composed of the same elements and in the
same proportions, but differing in their qualities, it may be observed, that now we are
taught to look for them, they will probably multiply upon us. I had occasion formerly
to describe a compound of olefiant gas and iodine (Phil, Trans. exi. 72), which upon
analysis yielded one proportional of iodine, two proportionals of carbon, and two of
hydrogen (Quarterly Journal, xiii.429). M.Serrulas, by the action of potassium upon
an alcoholic solution of iodine, obtained a compound decidedly different from the preced-

1826.] of Carbon and Hydrogen, &c. 101

It is evident that the vapour observed by Mr. Dalton and Dr.
Henry must have contained not only this compound, and a por-
tion of the bi-carburet of hydrogen, but also portions of the
other, as yet apparently indefinite substances ; and there can be
no doubt that the quantity of these vapours will vary from the
point of full saturation of the gas, when standing over water and
oil, to unknown, but much smaller proportions. Itis therefore
an object in the analysis of oil and coal gas, to possess means
‘by which their presence and quantity may be ascertained; and
this I find may be done with considerable exactness by the use
of sulphuric acid, oil, &c. in consequence of their solvent power
over them.

Sulphuric acid is in this respect a very excellent agent. - It
acts upon all these substances instantly, evolving no sulphurous
acid ; and though, when the quantity of substance is consider-
able as compared with the acid, a body is left undecomposed by,
or uncombined with the acid, and volatile, so as constantly to
afford a certain portion ‘of vapour ; yet when the original sub-
stance is in small quantity, as where it exists in vapour ina given
volume of gas, this does not interfere, in consequence of the
solubility of the vapour of the new compound produced by the
action of the acid in the acid itself in small quantities ; and I
found that when one volume of the vapour of any of the products
of the oil gas liquor was acted upon, either alone, or mixed with
J, 2, 3,4, up to 12 volumes of air, oxygen ot hydrogen, by from
half a volume to a volume of sulphuric acid, it was entirely
absorbed and removed.

_ When olefiant gas is present, additional care is required in
analytical experiments, in consequence of the gradual ¢ombina-
tion of the olefiant gas with the sulphuric acid. I found that
one volume of sulphuric acid in abundance of olefiant as,
absorbed about seven volumes in 24 hours in the dull light of a
room ; sunshine seemed to increase the action a little. When
the olefiant gas was diluted with air or hydrogen, the quantity

ing in its properties ; yet when analysed, it yielded the same elements in the same pro-
portions (Ann. de Chimie, xx. 245, xxii. 172),

Again. MM. Liebig and Gay Lussac, after an elaborate and beautiful investigation
of the nature of fulminating compounds of silver, mercury, &c. were led to the conclusion
that they were salts, containing a new acid, and owed their explosive powers to the faci-
lity with which the elements of this acid separated from each other (Annales de Chimie,
xxiv. 294, xxv. 285). The acid itself being composed of one proportional of oxygen, one
of nitrogen, and two of carbon, is equivalent toa proportional of oxygen + a proportional
of cyanogen, and is therefore considered as a true cyanic acid. But M. Wohler, by defla-
grating together a mixture of ferro-prussiate of potash and nitre, has formed a salt, which,
according to his analysis, is a true cyanate of potash. ‘The acid consists of one propor-
tion of oxygen, one of nitrogen, and two of carbon. It may be transferred to various
other bases, as the earths, the oxides of lead, silver, &c.; but the salts formed have
nothing in common with the similar salts of MM. Liebig and Gay Lussac, except their
composition (Gilbert’s Annalen, lxxiii. 157; Ann. de Chimie, xxvii. 190). M. Gay

observes, that if the analysis be correct, the difference can only be accounted for
by admitting a different mode of combination,

102 Mr. Faraday on new Compounds [Frs.

absorbed in a given time was much diminished ; and in those
cases it was hardly appreciable in two hours; a length of time
which appears to be quite sufficient for the removal of any of the
peculiar vapours from oil or coal gas.

My mode of operating was generally in glass tubes over clean
mercury,* introducing the gas, vapour or mixture, and then
throwing up the sulphuric acid by means of a bent tube
with a bulb blown in it, passing the acid through the mercury
by the force of the mouth. The following results are given as
illustrations of the process :—

Oil gas from a gasometer.

Giles in 8’ inl hour. 2 hours, diminution.
188 yol. + 9°5 vol. sulphuric acid diminished to 155° 148'5 146-4 = 22°12 per cent.
107 13: 3

+ cece sens ceccscccccccccers 88-5 84°5 82:0 23'3
158 iit BR, 0's soajeenlun afele debe stenasa SIGH 4 £1080... 106 Gc Beas
Oil gas from Gordon’s lamp.
; 15’ 30’ 3 hours.
Q14 Hf G'S sistas upleue sles cele aeeyeces ade SoS 180°8 176- Leis
159 BEN eNO To a.51a, aleiaisielataty eae Hohe ier otarstn LSND 1360 130°4 17:98
FE Ey 2 ea spccperciccee, 98:0. “heBig gag" dane
Coal gas of poor quality.

548-6 A276 ccceciccccvccesesecere eins ts Ose S 529°2 529- 3°5T
273-6 sb DAS stale se alban e! « oe deenscccsccces 267°9 266° 266° 2°18
190°6 ae ts i RUA tcc cccccceserees 186: 184-2 1841 3°Al

Oil may also be used in a similar manner for the separation
of these vapours. It condenses about six volumes of the most
elastic vapour at common temperatures, and it dissolves with
greaier facility the vapour of those liquids requiring higher tem-
peratures for their ebullition. I found that in mixtures made
with air or oxygen for detonation, I could readily separate the
vapour by means of olive oil; and when olefiant and other gases
were present, its solvent power over them was prevented, by
first agitating the oil with olefiant gas or with a portion of the
gas to saturate it, and then using it for the removal of the vapours.

In the same way some of the more fixed essential oils may be
used, as dry oil of turpentine ; and even a portion of the con-
densed liquor itself, as that part which requires a temperature
of 220° or 230° for its ebullition: care being taken to estimate
the expansion of the gas by the vapour of the liquid, which may
readily be done by a known portion of common air preserved
over the liquid as a standard.

With reference to the proportions of the different substances
in the liquid as obtained by condensation of oil gas, it is
extremely difficult to obtain any thing like precise results, in

* If the mercury contain oxidizable metals, the sulphuric acid acts upon it, and
evolyes sulphurous acid gas. It may be cleaned sufficiently by being left in contact
with sulphuric acid for 24 hours, agitating it frequently at intervals. shi j

1826.] of Carbon and Hydrogen, &c. 103

consequence of the immense number of rectifications required
to separate the more volatile from the less volatile portions; but
the following table will furnish an approximation. It contains
the loss of 100 parts by weight of the original fluid by evapora-
tion in a flask for every 10° in elevation of temperature, the sub-
stance being retained in a state of ebullition.

100 parts at 58°......parts....... differ.

had lost at,.20/'0 cieme iid L. asic 00
80 eevoeose 30 @eoeese
QO oa:0 sn0'7 DS meeiniss
TOD ‘seicie sian V2
LUD ve eiesls,e LOPE

FU iia aesincy ous tie sn ingles

BAS oa inaiee oh bons pmaae
19°3
22'4

se
No)

140 @eseeve8
150 eeee ee y

DU a os sgeteamrnii ae): Oe daa iae wie
HAW Ws elsiwike) Ot Uy sashes
| te RT AT, bay Aandi
[2 ea neem ¢ 2 Rasen
BUD | caesinanl OF wel we alaisis
ERR 1 aR
Pee sasniny opps OED Madi sey ag
eM a sta inca bgt Oi ees ees

- The residue 3°4 parts was dissipated before 250° with slight
decomposition. The third column expresses the quantity vola-
tilized between each 10°, and indicates the existence of what
has been described as bi-carburet of hydrogen in considerable
quantity.

The importance of these vapours in oil gas, as contributing to
its very high illuminating powers, will be appreciated, when it
is considered that with many of them, and those of the denser
kind, it is quite saturated. On distilling a portion of liquid,
which had condensed in the pipes leading to an oil gas gaso-
meter, and given to me by Mr. Hennel, of the Apothecaries’
Hall, I found it to contain portions of the bi-carburet of hydro-
gen. It was detected by submitting the small quantity of liquid
which distilled over before 190° to a cold of 0°, when the sub-
stance crystallized from the solution. It is evident, therefore,
that the gas from which it was deposited must have been satu-
rated with it. On distilling a portion of recent coal gas tar, as
was expected, none could be detected in it, but the action of
sulphuric acid is sufficient to show the existence of some of these
bodies in the coal gas itself.

With respect to the probable uses of the fluid from compressed.
oil gas, it is evident in the first place, that being thus volatile, it
will, if intyoduced into gas which burns with a pale flame, give

ot C2 STD OD Gr 9 G9 CO C9 BD E919 WD
Qa PeRe BTR DOOR, ROW

104; Mr, Lardner Vanumem,on [Frp.,

such quantity of yapour as to make it brightly illuminating; and,
even the vapour of those portions which require temperatures
of 170°, 180°, or higher for their ebullition, is so dense as to be
fully sufficient for this purpose in small quantities. A taper was
burnt out in a jar of common air over water; a portion of fluid
boiling at 190° was thrown up into it, and agitated; the mixture.
then burnt from a large aperture with the bright flame and
appearance of oil gas, though of course many times the quan-
tity that would have been required of oil gas for the same light
was consumed: atthe same time there was no mixture of blue-
ness with the flame; whether it were large or small. Mr. Gordon
has I understand proposed using“it*in this manner.

The fluid is also-an excellent solvent of caoutchouc, surpass-
ing every other substance in this quality. It has already been
applied to this purpose. “s

It will answer all the purposes to-which the essential oils are
applied as solvents, as in varnishes,-&c. and in some cases
where volatility is required, when: rectified it will far surpass
them.

It is possible that, at some future time, when we better under-
stand the minute changes which take place during the decom-
position of oil, fat, and: other substances by heat, and have more
command of the process, that this substance, among others, may
furnish the fuel fora lamp, which remaining a fluid at the pres-
sure of two or three atmospheres, but becoming a vapour at less
pressure, shall possess all the advantages of a gaslamp, without
involving the necessity of high pressure.

ArtTIcLe VI.

Experiments on Anthracite, Plumbago, &c. By Lardner
Vanuxem.* (Communicated by the Author.)

THESE experiments were undertaken with a view to deter-
mine whether the globules obtained by Prof. Silliman, from the’
above substances, were owing to a fusion of their carbon, or
merely to the impurities or foreign matter contained within
them. They were long delayed by my waiting for some sheet
zine necessary to repair a Deflagrator intended to be used for
the purpose of obtaining the globules ; but this not arriving, I
resolved to avail myself of the suggestion of Professor Silliman,
namely, that of using the compound blowpipe, which answered
perfectly well. In the experiments with the blowpipe, the sub-
stances were placed upon platina foil, spread upon a lump of
magnesia ; the size of the pieces subjected to its action was

. * From the Jowmal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, |

1826.] Anthracite, Plumbago, &¢, 105

about half an inch: in diameter, and one-fourth of an inch in
thickness. The light in the greater number of instances was so
intense that 1 found it necessary to use double green glasses.

_ The mode pursued in the analysis of anthracite and plumbago
was as follows. The presence of water was ascertained by heat-
ing a few small pieces of the substance in a glass tube, closed at
one end; and the quantity of water by heating a given portion
in a covered -platina crucible. Another portion was pulverized
in an agate mortar; then a given weight of it was put intoa
platina crucible, and kept without its cover at a red heat ina
small French furnace, until the whole of the carbon was con-
sumed; the residue was then boiled in water for an alkali;
after which operation it was heated with caustic potash in a
silver crucible: when the’ fusion of the mass’ was’ ‘completed,
water: was added, and the whole then dissolved with nitro-
muriatic:acid. By evaporating the liquor to dryness, and adding
acidulated water and filtering, the silex was obtained. To the
liquor from this operation, ammonia in excess was added, and
by this agent, the iron, manganese, and alumine contained in the
liquor; ‘were precipitated ; the latter was separated from the two
former by caustic potash. No attempt was made to ascertain
the relative proportions of iron and manganese; this knowledge
not being considered important. The presence of manganese
was evidenced by the green colour of the alkaline fusion; anda
rose colour when acid was added to the liquor. No allowance
was made for the difference in the degree of oxidation of the
iron and manganese in the substances used, and the products
obtained, as the amount was less than one per cent, where most
abundant.

The first experiments made with the globules were with

tash, and with carbonate of soda on silver, and on platina
foil; with these agents I could not produce much effect, but by
using a small quantity of carbonate of lime, carbonate of soda
and borax, on platina foil; their fusion, whether they were
coloured or colourless, opaque or transparent, was. effected in a
few minutes.

Exper. 1.—A piece of the purest anthracite of Lehigh, sub-
jected to the blowpipe, presented numerous small white glo-
bules; few were tinged with violet, and two or three were
blackish ; the globules did not readily unite with one another ;
however, by long continued heat, some of the globules were
obtained of the size of the head of a smail pin ; the greater num-
ber of them were but feebly translucent, and could be broken by
a moderate force ; others, though few in number, were transpa-
rent, hard, and not so brittle. The white globules were not
magnetic, except when dark spots were present; the blackish
ones were magnetic, and like the whole of them could be frac-
tured by pressure. The surface of the mass whitened, as

106 Mr. Lardner Vanuxem on (Fes.

observed in the ordinary combustion of this coal, and presented
veins or layers of the matter of the white globules ; showing
that the impurities of the coal were not regularly intermixed with
its carbon, or, upon the supposition of its being fused carbon,
that its production was extremely irregular.

With the flux before mentioned, the different kinds of globules
were melted without difficulty. By heating a centigramme and
a half of the globules in powder for a long time with caustic
potash, about three-fourths of a centigramme of silex was
obtained. It manifested itself by its gelatinous appearance
before the water was driven off.

The result of the analysis of this anthracite was,

Ee aie ett i Slate Wh Su ie are ole See 90:

Water* @eeoeoeseeeeeeeeseeeeneeeceetGoeseesveeeoees eevee 6

FUER. {uh varia

; sia ‘ Alumine. &:
Residue by incineration, ) a, dane | Ala eae

of a dirty white alot ve.sonslebing of 1 Pepe 0

0

1 LOA ciiemtcurets

————

100-0

Exper. 2.—The anthracite of Rhode Island, by the action of
the blowpipe, presented a brownish appearance after cooling
(owing to manganese). The surface exhibited numerous glo-
bules, larger than those of the Lehigh ; some of them were
transparent, colourless, and very brilliant by reflected light ;
others, and the most abundant, were black and opaque, and
were strongly attracted by the magnet; a few were coloured
white and black in spots ; the white spots resembling enamel.
The surface of the mass presented minute veins similar to those
of the Lehigh.

Some of the black globules were heated for a long time on
platina foil with carbonate of soda ; the mass was yellowish, but
became black when immersed in water. By heating and dip-
ping into water several times, the globules whitened; I could
not effect their fusion in this way, but with the compound flux
they readily fused. With this flux the different kinds were
tried, and with the same effect.

The analysis of this anthracite from Rhode Island gave,

* It is rather singular that so great a quantity of water as is contained in anthracite,
should heretofore have escaped notice. It is my intention to examine all the different
kinds of coal to ascertain if this fact be general.

1826.] Anthracite, Plumbago, &c. 107

aaa reNEN Hh eye ARR UR ALL GG uted USI NRT S GES IGS eiatate le asd 6 90:03

Weaker sicle ot. sic. 8 AU bl oad Msi DME Bai BUI oes v4 400
Residue by incine-)] Bilexcuen yous aie: Oe

ration, which was | 5:07 consist- } Oxides of iron and
of a light brick f mgof } manganese...... 2°50
TEM J0.008J (Loss 6 266 cee ety OAS
100:00

Another specimen from the same locality, whose colour was
a little different, being of a deeper black, and which was not
tried with the blowpipe, gave,

ees foal oc aie din Wie pict 6 tle abiadieles ¢.cin 77-70
WEE, on cece cio « bin Weenie seysies bio Wachee Apbiies steage Bp Mh ns aii OI
Residue by incine-) C UIEK snp ernmineisiem hin co O00
ration, colour the | 15:60 consist- ! Oxides of iron and

same as the fot ingof } manganese. .... 7°10
PEF aR Ree (Alumine . ........ Trace

100-00

Exper. 3.—A specimen of plumbago from Borrowdale, of
great purity, as judged by its external characters and mechani-
cal properties, was subjected to the blowpipe; the globules
began to form immediately and in great number, attended occa-
sionally by scintillations, owing to the combustion of iron; the
globules were small; the greater part of them were black,
opaque, and of great lustre; others were dull, of a brownish
colour, and feebly translucent; almost all of them were
attracted by the magnet. The surface ofthe heated part of the
plumbago was brownish.

The globules, though acted upon with great difficulty by soda,
and by potash, readily yielded to the compound flux, and
formed a limpid yellowish glass. A large globule, by repeatedly
heating it with carbonate of soda, and plunging it into water,
became rough, and finally opened in the centre; it then dis-
solved in nitro-muriatic acid. By evaporating the liquor to
dryness, the yellow colour of the iron was very manifest ; acidu-
lated water took it up, leaving a white substance like silex,
floating in the liquor.

The analysis of this plumbago gave,

SNRIAID esa abun brat ysis wile 6 laa tei slereeltlals nie wines hint oe SR OOTOr
Rah a Cy nant cas pn eee tH krone Ben rai 1:23
_ UE avis hee a aaiiate 5:10
esidue by incine- ; AVINIBINE |; a's. o'er e's 1:00
ration, colour, yel- 10-4 pase Oxides of iron and
lowish brick red. . wey manganese...... 3°60

Loss. eeeeeveoeeeene 0:70

108 Mr. Lardner Vanuxem on [Fen.

Exper. 4.—An impure specimen of. plumbago. from the same
locality gave numerous and large globules ; some of. the size of
small shot; they readily formed; the majority of them were
translucent, shining, and of a light greenish-yellow, others were
dark coloured; and some of them were dull externally. The
dark globules, as well as the surface of the mass.of plumbago
exposed to the flame, was attracted by the magnet; some of the
light coloured ones were affected by the magnet, but only at the
point where they had been attached to their support, owing» to
particles of the support adhering to them. During the combus-
tion of the plumbago, there were occasionally scintillations ; the
heated surface of the mass was brownish. PANNE ae

A large globule of the lightest’ colour and magnetic only at
one point, melted with ease when the’ compound flux was used ;
it formed a transparent mass when hot, and opaque and milky
when cold. The black onés with the same fiux were also fused ;
they were brownish when hot, and greenish when cold. They
were acted upon with great difficulty by caustic potash, and by
carbonate of soda.

The analysis of this plumbago gave,

Gomboore es his Ba COREE ENS CARL, Gee

Water eeoeveeeeeeevae eeeceveesvnteene + osrenrveeeneve eeeesee 5.33
eee he A oe Silex ..... SOE SO
the . Aloviine’ sates AN. 3°20
ration, colour of (33:4 consist- Onde (Am around
a dirty yellowish ing of ; a eM, age < 20-00
at | ; manganese. .....
OR TR ay Loss oesneoeeeeovreev ee 0:10

Exper. 5.—A specimen of plumbago remarkably pure, from
near Bustletown, Penis: was tried with the blowpipe. The glo-
bules were formed with difficulty, probably owing to its foliated
texture, the fused parts spreading over the surface. The colour
in places was white and translucent ; in others so dark as to be
almost black.

With the flux before mentioned, the fused matter was reduced
to a transparent glass.

The analysis of this plumbago gave,

DOr Oii wi eden Rite Ra's here bate tae ental tetS oc e'e'e atone atte: GPU
Water .....% 4 Mia RE eS es Bias Saha alee aie 0°60
Silexias fa'oee Pes iS cdi BOO

Aue: by ne a 5:0 consist- } Oxides of iron and
light 4 ick red ing of manganese. ..+.4. 1-40
bs ; hee : . vt : Loss eoeovevoevvreveree 1:00

1826.] Anthracite, Plumbago, Se. 109

Similar experiments were made with plumbago from several
other localities, the results of which were no wise different, and
therefore need no further mention.

Exper. 6.—A piece of charred mahogany, during its combus-
tion by the compound blowpipe, presented numerous small
imperfect globules, owing to the force of the flame, which dissi-
pated their support before they had time to form or to aceumu-
late to any considerable size; many of them adhered together,
ramifying like flos feri, which they resembled; they were
collected by placing a dish under their support. By the com-
pound flux, they readily fused into a transparent glass.

Exper.7.—A quantity of lamp-black was pressed into a mould
with great force, and made to assume the form of a cylinder of
about three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and half an inch in
thickness; it weighed seven grammes. This cylinder of lamp-
black was subjected to the blowpipe. It wasted away gradually
without forming any globules or fused matter, visible to the
naked eye or to the microscope. The heat was equally as
intense in this experiment as in all the other instances, and no
condition was wanting to produce the same effects, except the
difference of composition. After burning the lamp-black for as
long a time as was thought necessary to make the experiment a
fair one, it was again weighed, and found to have lost four
grammes, =*2,, for it weighed but two grammes, -.8,.

Five grammes of the same lamp-black heated in an open pla-
tina crucible, left after its incineration one centigramme of white
ashes, equal to 1, of the mass.

From the analyses of the substances used by Prof. Silliman,
from which the globules were obtained, it appears that they all
contain foreign matter, as silex, iron, manganese, and some of
them also alumine; that when lamp-black was used which con-
tained but ;4,. of fixed impurities, no distinct globule or melted
matter was formed; although the heat was sufficiently great,
and the combustion slow enough to admit of the forming of glo-
bules, if their production was owing to the fusion of carbon, and
not to extraneous matter. From my own experiments I always
found that the more impure the substance was, the more nume-
rous and the larger were the globules produced.

All the globules from the different kinds of substances used,
were readily fused by the compound flux, and underwent little
change when it was not used; although the heat was, in this
case, of longer continuance. Matter similar to the impurities
discovered in the substances used was detected in them.

From these facts it would appear, that the globules produced
from the combustible substances operated upon, did not arise
from the fusion of their carbon, since they can otherwise be
accounted for; particularly as no experiment has been made
which unequivocally leads to that conclusion. The experiment

110 Mr. L. Vanuxem on Anthracite, Plumbago, &c. [Frese

upon which Prof. Silliman relies, as a proof of the globules
being fused carbon, is one which is not satisfactory to me ; if it
had been, it would have given me great pleasure; for no one, I
trust, feels more interested in the scientific prosperity of his
country than I do; and if Prof. Silliman were right, it would
indeed be a triumph for America.

The experiment just alluded to (see vol. vi. p. 347, Journal of
Science), is the heating some of the coloured globules in oxygen
gas by the solar rays, witha lens. The following is an extract
from the papers.

“ To detach any portion of unmelted plumbago which might
adhere to them, I carefully rubbed them between my thumb and
finger, in the palm of my hand. Although they were in the
focus for nearly half an hour, they did not melt, disappear, or
alter their form ; it appeared, however, on examining the gas,
that they had given up a part of their substance to the oxygen,
for carbonic acid was formed which gave a decided precipitate
with lime-water.”

That this experiment is equivocal appears certain, as particles
of the support might have been attached to the globules ; for,
from my own observations, I found that in a great number of
instances, some of the white globules at the point of junction
with their support, had small dark particles attached to them,
and when the surface from which they were detached was mag-
netic, they were attracted by the magnet when it was presented
to those parts ; I could not disengage those particles by rubbing
the globules with my fingers against one another. It is very
evident that as the globules underwent no change (unless a
reduction of volume, which is not mentioned), as the description
clearly shows, the carbonic acid obtained, might have been pro-
duced by the combustion of portions of the support adhering to
them externally, and penetrating them to a certain extent.

In the experiment detailed in vol. v. p. 363, of the same
Journal, the carbonic acid found, probably had a similar origin,
and the disappearance of the globules may have been owing to
their incorporating themselves with the piece of brick upon
which they were placed, as the brick was vitrified at the point
where they were placed.

Prof. Silliman seems disposed to lay great stress on the loss
in my examination of the globule, sent by Dr. Macneven. I
thought I had well accounted for it, as the particle was small,
action violent, and I merely wished to show chemically the pre-
sence of iron. I could not, for one moment, entertain the idea
that carbon existed in it in any notable proportion ; for I know
of no combination of iron and carbon at common temperature
which could give a product possessed of the malleability and
toughness which the globule possessed.

I was sorry to observe that Professor Silliman in his reply to

1826.] On the Combustion of Compressed Gas. lil

my paper seems offended that I did not notice his communica-
tions upon the subject of these globules, particularly as the
discovery was his, and was justly entitled to such consideration.
My silence certainly appeared uncourtly, but it was not owin
to ignorance of his labours, or a want of regard to him personally,
or as a chemist; Prof. Silliman’s merit is too well known to be
affected by me.

ArtTicue VII.

On the Combustion of Compressed Gas; being part of a paper
read before the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester.
By Mr. J. Davies, MWS. &c. &c. Lecturer on Chemistry, &c.
(Communicated by the Author.)

In making, upwards of twelve months ago, some experiments
uponthe combustion of compressed gas, I accidentally observed
a fact which is, I think, of rather a singular nature.

When the aperture of the burner is, in this case, too large,
the flame cannot be maintained, being blown away by the rapid
current of the gas. When it is rather small, the flame is under
the best circumstances. If the aperture be further enlarged
without being carried to the extent at which the combustion is
extinguished, the flame will then be blue, noisy, and agitated,
affording very little light. But I found, to my great surprise,
that if, when the flame was in this last state, the vessel. of the
gas was inverted, the flame was instantly changed, and instead
of being as I have just stated, it was steady, silent, and power-
ful. I have repeated the experiment frequently, and with differ-
ent vessels. In every instance the result has been precisely the
same.

It became interesting to inquire into the cause of the pheno-
menon. I submit with deference the only explanation which I
have been able to discover.

The gas, rarefied by heat, being lighter than the atmosphere,
has a tendency to move in the direction of the flame when the
vessel is held upright. In this case, therefore, it moves with
greater impetuosity than it could were the burner in any other
position. On the contrary, when the flame is directed down-
wards, it has a tendency to return upon itself. Thus the ascent
of the gas is promoted, and the descent retarded, by the agency
of the atmosphere; for the gas being rendered lighter in the
Way just mentioned, has a tendency to rise in the air on the
same principle that a cork rises in water, and its descent is in
like manner resisted. The fact might, perhaps, be better illus-
trated by conceiving air to be forced through water. If the air
be urged from the bottom of the vessel, it readily moves by

112 Dr. Mitchill on the Hedgehog-Ray. [Fup

reason of its great levity in the required direction; but if it be
forcibly impelled downwards from the surface, as from the extre~
mity of a condensing syringe, it can only be driven to a short
distance, and it is then forced back towards the pipe. This
case appears to me to be analogous to that of the gas, which, if
I am not mistaken, it serves to illustrate and explain. The
upright position of the vessel admits, in the case referred to, of
the escape of some of the gas unburnt ; but when the burner is
inverted, the flame, for reasons already assigned, returns upon
the stream of gas, and the combustion, which was before imper-
fect, is then complete.

How far the fact may be susceptible of a practical application,
I am not at present prepared to offer an opinion; but the con-
sumption of the gas is, by this mode of burning, very consider-
able, and I have not yet been able to determine that there is in
the combustion of gas under the ordinary pressure, any increase
of illuminating power obtained by inverting the burner.

t

Articte VIII.

The Hedgehog-Ray—a species of Fish taken vecasionally near
New York, in the Atlantic Ocean, and now, as is believed;
for the first time described. By Samuel L. Mitchill, M. and
LL. D. &c.*

Tue fish brought me this morning by Capt. Enos Woodruff,
was taken by him with a hook and line, in the sea, off Barnegat,
where the water was seven fathoms deep. It had been
wounded so slightly that he kept it alive for several days, and
he supposed it might have been living yet, had it not perished
in consequence of the highly electrical state of the atmosphere
during the late shower, accompanied by remarkably bright
lightning, and loud thunder. His belief is, according to the
opinion prevailing among fishermen, that the thunder killed the
fish. ) :

The animal undoubtedly belongs to the great family of Raja,
which comprehends the Rays, Skates, Torpedoes, and most
of the other horizontally flat fishes not appertaining to the
Pleuronectes, or flounder tribe.

When drawn from its element, it had the appearance, for
some minutes, while its vital energy remained, and it was yet
pendant from the hook, of a hedgehog: that is to say, a con-
traction of the muscles had taken place, by which the approx-
imated margin, or circumference, from the several parts,
resembled a bowl, or basket, of which the belly was the inner, —

* American Journal of Science. : ¢

1826.]) Dr. Mitchill on the Hedgehog-Ray. 113

and the back the outer side. The tail, at the time, was in-
curvated so much as to enter the mouth, or project beyond it.
When in this posture, the fish seemed capable of presenting
the globular or spherical form of the back, with its armature
and prickles, to its enemies or pursuers. For, even when held
in the air, its rotundity remained until the muscles were relaxed
by death ; and, even then, after animation was extinct, there
was a curvature of the rim, or periphery, showing its tendency
to a concave figure. The only other individual of the species
I ever saw, was one that was catched, in my presence, on board
the boat that went to the fishing banks, south-east of Sandy-
Hook, on the 23d July, 1822. i examined it while alive, and
immediately on being raised from the depth of five fathoms. I
then named it

Rasa Erinaceus,

with this specific character: “ having a tail bearing two dorsal
fins, with the vestige of a third at the extremity; thickly acue-
lated on the sides, though destitute of the spines called stings ;
having a pale brown prickly skin, over which dark brown spots
are distributed ; and having also a patch of about 20 spines on
each wing, or flap, which, while the wings or flaps are extended,
and lie flat, are concealed or covered by the skin; but,
when the wings or flaps are contracted, come forth and are
erected like the claws of a cat, when they are capable of ar-
resting or tearing soft objects presented to them.”

The length of the specimen now before me is 17 inches, and
the breadth 91 inches. The head is roundish, though ending
in something like a pointed snout. The cheeks (if they may
be so called) are parting projections, of a curved form, on the
sides of the snout, and are laterally anterior to the eyes. The
pectoral fins (wings or flaps) are circular or roundish, and,
viewed in connexion, present a sort of elliptical figure. The
ventral fins have three little elevations or protuberances back-
ward, that might almost be called digitations, as there are
traces, within the common integuments, of concealed fingers.
The anal fins have no striking peculiarities. Near the base of
these, and under the tail, the two appendages, peculiar to these
creatures, proceed obliquely to the length of five inches.

The whole body is so semi-diaphanous that the bones can
be discerned on holding it up between the eye and the light.
This quality distinguishes the marginal parts of the flaps par-
ticularly, and yet more distinctly characterizes the snout.

Tail thick and stout, like that of the skate; and, measured
from the base to the ventrals, nine inches long. Toward the
extremity, it supports two fins, which are faintly radiated. The
foremost of these is jagged behind with several slits or notches :
the hindermost has no such divisions. There is a trace of a

New Series, vow. xt. I

114 - Mr. Daniell on Climate. (Fes.

third fin, near the very end of the tail, in the form of a neat”
filma gy © a

Skin slimy and scaleless. It is beset with prickles in spots
of patches. There is a patch in front of each eye, reaching
along the inner orbit, and likewise occupying the space between
the eyes. Two lines of spines proceed, one from each ocular
patch, to the tip of the snout, where they join, in the form of
the letter V inverted. The cheeks, or lateral pouches, are
covered with prickles, so as to bear some resemblance to
whiskers.

Behind the eyes, and on the back part of the head, there is
a patch of prickles, in the shape of an equilateral triangle, with
one of its sides backwards, and an angle forward. ret

On each wing, or flap, is a patch of catspaw prickles, of the
retractile quality, mentioned in the definition, From the
moustaches, the skin of the flaps, along the edge, and for a
small distance beyond, is roughtened by a set of more minute

rickles. .

‘ Along each side of the back is a row of stiff and short
spines, proceeding towards the tail; and smaller ones near
them, with a rather irregular distribution. On the tail they are
much more numerous, distinct, and strong; distinguishable in
two main rows, or lines, with a smooth scaleless and spineless
stripe between them, reaching to the dorsals. The lower side
of the tail, and the whole belly, are quite smooth. There is a
trifling roughness on a patch of each caudal appendage.

Eyes half covered and elegantly curtained. Behind them
open and ample orifices, or ears. Nostrils distinct, and con-
nected with the mouth, through fissures, to the upper lip.
Teeth, in both jaws, associated, compact, and sharp-pointed.

The lower or belly side of this fish exhibits a bending, or
inflexion of the margin, all the way round to the ventral fins,
of such a kind that when, even after death, it lies upon its
back, there is a rising, or rim, like that of a cup or basin,
capable of preventing the escape of water. Wohi

ArTICLE IX.

On Climate, considered with regard to Horticulture. By John
Frederic Daniell, Esq. FRS. &c.* (Communicated by the
Author.)

Tue following observations were committed to paper, and
submitted to the consideration of the Horticultural Society, at
the particular request of their Secretary. The author would

* From the Horticultural Transactions.

1826.] Mr. Daniell on Climate. 115

scarcely have thought them novel or important enough for such
a destination, but he defers to his judgment, and shall at all
events have had the pleasure of complying with his wishes.

Horticulture differs from agriculture in one very material
respect. The latter has for its object the fertilization of the soil
by manures, and the different processes of cultivation, in the
manner best adapted to the peculiarities of any given climate :
it concerns itself only with the growth and nourishment of such
plants as are indigenous, or, by along course of treatment, have
become inured to the vicissitudes of weather incidental to a par-
ticular latitude. The former occupies a much wider field of
research ; it not only seeks to be conversant with the constitu-
tion of soils, but as it aspires to the preservation and propagation
of exotic vegetation, it necessarily embraces the consideration
of varieties of climate : and it labours, by art, to assimilate the
confined space of its operations to that constitution of atmosphere
which is most congenial to its charge, or to protect them at
different periods of their growth from sudden changes of weather
which would be detrimental to their health. Experience has
anticipated theoretical knowledge in suggesting various arti-
fices, by which these ends may be effected ; a connected view
of which has never, I believe, been attempted ; but may prove
to be not without interest and utility. The suggestions of expe-
rience may probably enlarge the conclusions of theory, while it
is not impossible that the improved state of the latter may be
found to furnish some assistance to the former.

The science of Horticulture, with regard to climate, will be
best considered in two divisions: the first comprises the
methods of mitigating the extremes, or exalting the energies, of
the natural climate in the open air; the second embraces the
more difficult means of composing and maintaining a confined
atmosphere, whose properties may assimilate with those of the
natural atmosphere in intertropical latitudes. I shal) commence
Mee ts with the former.

e basis of the atmosphere has been proved to be of the
same chemical composition in all the regions of the globe. All
the varieties of climate will therefore be found to depend upon
the modifications impressed upon it by light, heat, and moisture,
and over these, art has obtained, even in the open air, a greater
influence than at first sight would appear to be possible. By
judicious management, the climate of our gardens is rendered
congenial to the luxurious productions of more favoured regions,
and flowers and fruits from the confines of the tropics, flourish-
ing in the open air, daily prove the triumphs of knowledge and
industry.

For the complete understanding of the subject in all its bear-
ings, and to enable us to derive all the practical advantages

which such an understanding would certainly afford, it would
12

116 Mr. Daniell on Climate. {Fes.

be necessary to have a full knowledge of the peculiarities of the
climate of every region of the earth, a knowledge which we are
very far from yet possessing ; but to which, rapid advances are
daily making. But above all, it seems necessary that we should
understand the atmospheric variations of our own situation.
These, though not constituting the greatest range with which we
are acquainted, are great, and oftentimes sudden. The range
of the thermometer in the shade is from 0° to 90° of Fahrenheit’s
scale ; but under favourable circumstances the heat of the sun’s
rays reaches 135°, the changes of moisture extend from 1-000,
or saturation, to °389.* Now the great object of the Horticul-
turist is to stretch, as it were, his climate to the south, where
these extremes of drought and cold never occur; and not only
to guard against the injurious effects of the ultimate severity of
weather, but to ward off the sudden changes which are liable to
recur in the different seasons of the year. To enable us to
understand the methods of effecting this end, it will be neces-
sary to consider the means by which these changes are brought
about in the general course of nature. The principal of these
will be found to be, wind and radiation.

The amount of evaporation from the soil, and of exhalation
from the foliage of the vegetable kingdom, depends upon two
circumstances, the saturation of the air with moisture, and the
velocity of its motion. They are in inverse proportion to the
former, and in direct proportion to the latter.

When the air is dry, vapour ascends in it with great rapidity
from every surface capable of affording it, and the energy of this
action is greatly promoted by wind, which removes it from the
exhaling body as fast as it is formed, and prevents that accumu-
lation which would otherwise arrest the process.

Over the state of saturation, the Horticulturist has little or no
control in the open air, but over its velocity he has some com-
mand. Hecan break the force of the blast by artificial means,
such as walls, palings, hedges, or other screens ; or he may find
natural shelter in situations upon the acclivities ofhills. Exces-
sive exhalation is very injurious to many of the processes of

* The Dew-point (a term which will often occur in the course of this paper) is the
degree of temperature at which the moisture of the atmosphere would begin to precipi-
tate, and may readily be ascertained at all seasons by means of the hygrometer. ‘The
natural scale of the hygrometer is included between the points of perfect dryness and
perfect moisture: the latter, of course, being that state of the atmosphere at which the
dew-point coincides with the temperature of the air. The intermediate degrees may be
ascertained by dividing the elasticity of vapour at the temperature of the dew-point by
the elasticity at the temperature of the air: the quotient will express the proportion of
moisture actually existing, to the quantity which would be required for saturation ; for,
calling the term of saturation 1-009, as the elasticity of vapour at the temperature of the
air is to the elasticity of vapour at the temperature of the dew-point, so is the term of
saturation to the actual degree of moisture. The necessary tables for facilitating this
calculation, and more detailed explanations than it is possible to comprise in a note, may
be had, with the hygrometer, at Mr, Newman’s in Lisle-street, or may be found in the |
author’s Meteorological Essays.

1826.] Mr. Daniell on Climate. 117

vegetation, and no small proportion of what is commonly called
blight may be attributed to this cause. Evaporation increases
in a prodigiously rapid ratio with the velocity of the wind, and
any thing which retards the motion of the latter is very effica-
cious in diminishing the amount of the former ; the same surface,
which in a calm state of the air would exhale 100 parts of mois-
ture, would yield 125 in a moderate breeze, and 150 in a high
wind. The dryness of the atmosphere in spring renders the
effect most injurious to the tender shoots of this season of the
year, and the easterly winds especially are most to be opposed
in their course. The moisture of the air flowing from any point
between NEand SE inclusive is to that of the air from the other
quarter of the compass, in the proportion of 814 to 907 upon an
average of the whole year: and it is no uncommon thing in
spring for the dew-point to be more than 20 degrees below the
temperature of the atmosphere in the shade, and I have even
seen the difference amount to 30 degrees. The effect of such a
degree of dryness is parching in the extreme, and if accompanied
with wind is destructive to the blossoms of tender plants. The
use of high walls, especially upon the northern and eastern sides
of a garden, in checking this evil, cannot be doubtful, and in
the case of tender fruit trees, such screens should not be too far
apart.

ain here theory would suggest another precaution, which I
believe has never yet been adopted, but which would be well
worthy of a trial. When trees are trained upon a wal! with a
southern aspect, they have the advantage of a greatly exalted
temperature, but this temperature in spring differs from the
warmth of a more advanced period of the year, or of a more
southern climate, in not being accompanied by an increase of
moisture. In the extremely dry state of the atmosphere to
which I am now alluding, the enormous exhalation from the
blossoms of tender fruit trees, which must thus be induced,
cannot fail of being extremely detrimental ; the effect of shad-
ing the plants from the direct rays of the sun should therefore
be ascertained. The state of the weather to which I refer often
occurs in April, May, and June, but seldom lasts many hours.
Great mischief, however, may arise in a very small interval of
time, and the disadvantage of a partial loss of light cannot be
put in comparison with the probable effect which | have pointed
out.

During the time in which I kept a register of the weather, I
have seen in the month of May the thermometer in the sun at
101°, while the dew-point was only 34°, the state of saturation
of the air, upon a south wall, consequently only!amounted to
120, a state of dryness which is certainly not surpassed by an
African Harmattan. The shelter of a mat on such occasions

118 Mr. Daniell on Climate. {Fen.

would often prevent the sudden injury which so frequently arises
at this period of the year.

Some of the present practices of gardening are founded upon
experience of similar effects, and it is well known that cuttings
of plants succeed best in a border with a northern aspect pro-
tected from the wind; or if otherwise situated, they require to
be screened from the force of the noon-day sun, If these pre+
cautions be unattended to, they speedily droop and die. For
the same reason, the autumn is selected for placing them in the
ground, as well as for transplanting trees ; the atmosphere at
that season being saturated with moisture is not found to
exhaust the plant before it has become rooted in the soil.

Over the absolute state of vapour in the air we are wholly
powerless, and by no system of watering can we affect the dew-
point in the free atmosphere. This is determined in the upper
regions; it is only therefore by these indirect methods, and by
the selection of proper seasons, that we can preserve the more
tender shoots of the vegetable kingdom from the injurious
effects of excessive exhalation.

Radiation, the second cause which I have mentioned as pro-
ducing a sudden and injurious influence upon the tender
products of the garden, is one that has been little understood,
till of late years, by the natural philosopher; and even to this
day has not been rendered familiar to the practical gardener ;
who, although he has been taught by experience to guard
against some of its effects, is totally unacquainted with the
theory of his practice. Dr. Wells, to whose admirable “ Essay
upon Dew,” weare so much indebted for our present knowledge
upon this important subject, thus candidly remarks upon this
anticipation of science: “I had often, in the pride of half
knowledge, smiled at the means frequently employed by gar-
deners to protect tender plants from cold, as it appeared to me
impossible that a thin mat or any such flimsy substance could
prevent them from attaining the temperature of the atmosphere,
by which alone I thought them liable to be injured. But when
I had learned that bodies on the surface of the earth become,
during a still and serene night, colder than the atmosphere, by
radiating their heat to the heavens, I perceived immediately a
just reason for the practice which I had before deemed useless.”

The power of emitting heat in straight lines in every direction,
independently of contact, may be regarded as a property com-
mon to all matter, but differing in degree in different kinds of
matter. Co-existing with it, in the same degrees, may be
regarded the power of absorbing heat so emitted from other
bodies. Polished metals, and the fibres of vegetables, may be
considered as placed at the two extremities of the scale upon
which these properties in different substances may be measured.

1826.) Mr, Daniell on Climate. 119

If a body be so situated that it may receive just.as much radiant
heat as itself projects, its temperature remains the same ; if the
surrounding bodies emit heat of greater intensity than the same
body, its temperature rises, till the quantity which it receives
exactly balances its expenditure, at which point it again becomes
stationary ; and if the power of radiation be exerted under cir-
cumstances which prevent a return, the temperature of the body
declines. Thus, if a thermometer be placed in the focus of a
coneave metallic mirror, and turned towards any clear portion
of the sky, at any period of the day, it will fall many degrees
below the temperature of another thermometer placed near it,
out of the mirror; the power of radiation is exerted in both
thermometers, but to the first all return of radiant heat is cut off,
while the other receives as much from the surrounding bodies
as itself projects. This interchange amongst boilies takes place
in transparent media as well as in vacuo; but in the former case
the effect is modified by the equalizing power of the medium.
Any portion of the surface of the globe which is fully turned
towards the sun receives more radiant heat than it projects, and
becomes heated ; but when, by the revolution of the axis this
portion is turned from the source of heat, the radiation into -
space still continues, and being uncompensated, the temperature
declines. In consequence of the different degrees in which
different bodies possess this power of radiation, two contiguous
portions of the system of the earth will become of aiferent
temperatures, and if ona clear night we place a thermometer
upon agrass-plat, and another upon a gravel walk or the bare
soil, we shall find the temperature of the former many degrees
below that of the latter. The fibrous texture of the grass is
favourable to the emission of the heat, but the dense surfaces
of the gravel seem to retain and fix it. But this unequal effect
will only be perceived when the atmosphere is unclouded, and
a free passage is open into space; for even a light mist will
arrest the radiant matter in its course, and return as much to the
radiating body as it emits. The intervention of more substantial
obstacles will of course equally prevent the result, and the
balance of temperature will not be disturbed in any substance
which is not placed in the clear aspect ofthe sky. A portion of
a grass-plat under the protection of a tree or hedge, will gene-
rally be found, on a clear night, to be eight or ten degrees
warmer than surrounding unsheltered parts, and it is well known
to gardeners that less dew and frost are to be found in such
situations than in those which are wholly exposed.
_ There are many independent circumstances which modify the
effects of this action, such as the state of the radiating body, its
power of conducting heat, &c. If, for instance, the body be in
aliquid or aeriform state, although the process may go on freely,
as in water, the cold produced by it will not accumulate upon

120 Mr. Daniell on Climate. [Fes.

the surface, but will be dispersed by known laws throughout the
mass ; and if a solid body be a good radiator but a bad conduc-
tor of heat, the frigorific effect will be condensed upon the face
which is exposed. So upon the surface of the earth absolute
stillness of the atmosphere is necessary for the accumulation of
cold upon the radiating body ; for if the air be in motion, it dis-
‘perses and equalizes the effect, with a rapidity proportioned to
its velocity. .

It is upon these principles that Dr. Wells has satisfactorily
explained all the phenomena connected with dew or hoar frost.
This deposition of moisture is owing to the cold produced in
bodies by radiation, which condenses the atmospheric vapour
upon their surfaces. It takes place upon vegetables, but not
upon the naked soil. The fibres of short grass are particularly
favourable to its formation. It is not produced either in cloudy
or in windy weather, or in situations which are not perfectly
open to the sky. It is never formed upon the good conducting
surfaces of metals, but is rapidly deposited upon the badly con-
ducting surfaces of filamentous bodies, such as cotton, wool, &c.

In remarking that dew is never formed upon metals, it is ne-
cessary to distinguish a secondary effect which often causes a
deposition of moisture upon every kind of surface indiscrimi-
nately. The cold which is produced upon the surface of the
radiating body is communicated by slow degrees to the surround-
ing atmosphere, and if the effect be great and of sufficient conti-
nuance, moisture is not only deposited upon the solid body, but
is precipitated in the air itself; from which it slowly subsides,
and settles upon every thing within its range.

The formation of dew is one of the circumstances which
modify and check the refrigerating effect of radiation; for as
the vapour is condensed, it gives out the latent heat with which
it was combined in its elastic form, and thus, no doubt, prevents
an excess of depression which might in many cases prove inju-
rious to vegetation. A compensating arrangement is thus esta-
blished, which, while it produces all the advantages of this gentle
effusion of moisture, guards against the injurious concentration
of the cause by which it is produced.

The effects of radiation come under the consideration of the
Horticulturist in two points of view: the first regards the
primary influence upon vegetables, exposed to it; the second
the modifications produced by it upon the atmosphere of parti-
cular situations. To vegetables growing in the climates for
which they were originally designed by nature, there can be no
doubt that the action of radiation is particularly beneficial, from
the deposition of moisture which it determines upon their foliage ;
but to tender plants artificially trained to resist the rigours of an
unnatural situation, this extra degree of cold may prove highly
prejudicial. It also appears probable from observation, that the

1826.] Mr. Daniell on Climate. 121

‘intensity of this action increases with the distance from the
equator to the poles; as the lowest depression of the thermome-
ter which has been registered between the tropics, from this
cause, is 12°, whereas in the latitude of London, it not unfre-
‘quently amounts to 17°. But however this may be, it is certain
that vegetation in this country is liable to be affected at night
from the influence of radiation by a temperature below the
freezing point of water, ten months in the year; and even in the
two months, July and August, which are the only exceptions, a
thermometer covered with wool will sometimes fall to 35°. It is,
-however, only low vegetation upon the ground which is exposed
to the full rigour of this effect. In such a situation the air
which is cooled by the process, lies upon the surface of the
‘plants, and from its weight cannot make its escape; but from
the foliage of a tree or shrub, it glides off and settles upon the
round.

7 Any thing which obstructs the free aspect of the sky arrests
in proportion the progress of this refrigeration, and the slightest
covering of cloth or matting annihilates it altogether. Trees
trained upon a wall or paling, or plants sown under their protec-
tion, are at once cut off from a large portion of this evil; and
are still further protected, if within a moderate distance of
another opposing screen. The most perfect combination for
the growth of exotic fruits in the open air would bea number of
parallel walls within a short distance of one another, facing
the south-east quarter of the heavens ; the spaces between each
should be gravelled, except a narrow border on each side, which
should be kept free from weeds and other short vegetables. On
the southern sides of these walls, peaches, nectarines, figs, &c.
might be trained to advantage, and on their northern sides
many hardier kinds of fruit would be very advantageously
situated. Tender exotic trees would thus derive all the benefit
of the early morning sun, which would at the earliest moment
dissipate the greatest accumulation of cold which immediately
precedes its rise, and the injurious influence of nocturnal
radiation would be almost entirely prevented. Upon trees so
‘trained, the absolute perpendicular impression could have little
effect, and this little might even be prevented by a moderate

wong ‘
ats Or canvass, upon rollers to draw down occasionally in
front of the trees, at the distance of a foot or two from their
foliage, would, I have no doubt, be a great advantage in certain
dry states of the atmosphere before alluded to, and in the case
of walls which are not opposed to others, would be a good
substitute for the protection of the latter.

_ Experience has taught gardeners the advantages of warding
_ off the effects of frost from tender vegetables, by loose straw or
other litter, but the system of matting does not appear to be

12 Mr. Daniell on Climate. (Fes,

carried to. that extent which its simplicity and efficacy would
suggest. Neither does the manner of fixing the screen exhibit
@ proper acquaintance with the principle upon which it is
zesorted to ; it is generally bound tight round the tree which it
is. required to protect, or nailed in close contact with its foliage.
Now it should be borne in mind that the radiation is only
tranferred from the tree to the mat, and the cold of the latter
will be conducted to the former in every point where it touches.
Contact should therefore be prevented by hoops or other means
properly applied, and the stratum of air which is enclosed will,
by its low conducting power, effectually secure the plant.
With their foliage thus protected, and their roots well covered
with litter, many evergreens might doubtless be brought to sur-
viye the rigour of our winters, which are now confined to the
stunted growth of the green house and conservatory.
The secondary effect which radiation has upon the climate o
particular situations, is a point which is less frequently consi-
dered than the primary one which we have been investigating,
but which requires perhaps still more attention, The utmost
concentration of cold cau only take place in a perfectly still
atmosphere: a very slight motion of the air is sufficient to
disperse it. A low mist is often formed in meadows in particu-
lar situations, which is the consequence of the slow extension
of this cold in the air, as before described; the agitation of
merely walking through this condensation is frequently sufficient
to disperse and melt it. A valley surrounded by low hills is
more liable to the effects of radiation than the tops and sides of
the hills themselves ; and it is a well known fact that dew and
hoar frost are always more abundant in the former than in.the
latter situations, It is not meant to include in this observation
places surrounded by lofty and precipitous hills which obstruct
the aspect of the sky, for in such the contrary effect would be
produced. Gentle slopes which break the undulations of the
alr without naturally circumscribing the heavens, are most
efficient in promoting this action, and it is worthy of remark
and consideration, that by walls and other fences, we may arti- .
ficially combine circumstances which may produce the same
injurious effect. tio
But the influence of hills upon the nightly temperature of the
valleys which they surround is not confined to this insulation ;
radiation goes on upon their declivities, and the air which is
condensed by the cold rolls down and lodges at their feet.
Their sides are thus protected from the chill, anda double
portion falls upon, what many are apt to consider, the more
sheltered situation. Experience amply confirms these theore-
tical considerations. It is a very old remark, that the injurious
effeets of cold occur chiefly in hollow places, and that frosts
are less severe upon hills than in neighbouring plains. It is

1826.] Mr, Daniell on Climate. 128

consistent with my own observations that the leaves of the vine,
the walnut-tree, and the succulent shoots of dahlias and pota-
toes, are often destroyed by frost in sheltered valleys, on nights
when they are perfectly untouched upon the surrounding emi-
nences ; and [have seen a difference of 30 degrees on the same
night between two thermometers placed in the two situations,
in favour of the latter. '

The advantages of placinga garden upon a gentle slope must
be hence very apparent: a running stream at its foot would
secure the further benefit of a contiguous surface, not liable to
refrigeration, and would prevent any injurious stagnation of the
air. Few situations are likely to fulfill all the conditions which
theory would suggest for the most perfect mitigation of the
climate in the open air; but the preceding remarks may not be
without their use in pointing out localities, which, with this view,
are most to be avoided.

Little is in the power of the Horticulturist to effect in the way
of exalting the powers of the climate in the open air; except
by choice of situation with regard to the sun and the concentra+
tion of its rays upon walls and other screens. The natural
reverberation from these and the subjacent soil, is however very
effective, and few of the productions of the tropical regions are
exposed to a greater heat than a well trained tree upon a wall in
summer. Indeed it would appear from experiment, that the
power of radiation from the sun, like that of radiation from the
earth, increases with the distance from the equator, and there is
a greater difference between a thermometer placed in the shade,
and another in the solar rays in this country, than in Sierra
Leone, or Jamaica. The observations of the President of
this Society upon the growth of pine-apples is in exact accord-
ance with this idea, for he has remarked that this species of
plant, though extremely patient of a high temperature, is not by
any means so patient of the action of very continued bright
light as many other plants, and much less so than the fig and
orange tree; and he is inclined to think that on this account
they may be found to ripen their fruit better in the spring than
ain the middle of the summer.* This energy of the sun is at
times so great that it often becomes necessary to shade delicate
flowers from its influence, and I have already pointed out a case
in which it would be desirable to try the same precaution with
the early blossom of certain fruit trees. The greatest power is
put forth in this country in June, while the greatest temperature
of the air does not take place till July. The temperature of
summer may thus be anticipated a month, in well secured
situations.

The greatest disadvantage to which Horticulture is subject in

" See Horticwltural Transactions, vol, iv. page 548.

124 Mr. Daniell on Climate. [Fes.

this climate, is the uncertainty of clear weather; a circumstance
~which art has, of course, no means to control; no artificial
warmth is capable of supplying the deficiency when it occurs,
and without the solar beams fruits lose their flavour and flowers
the brightness of their tints. Ithas been attempted to commu-
nicate warmth to walls by means of fire and flues, but without
the assistance of glass no great success has attended the trial.

It is well known that solar heat is absorbed by different
substances with various degrees of facility dependant upon their
colours, and that black is the most efficacious in this respect.
It has therefore been proposed to paint garden walls of this
colour ; but no great benefit is likely to arise from this sugges-
tion. It is probable that in the spring, when the trees are devoid
of foliage, the wood may thus be forced to throw out its blossom
somewhat earlier than it otherwise would; but this would be
rather a disadvantage, as the flower would become exposed to
the vicissitudes of an early spring. It is more desirable to
check than to force this delicate and important process of vege-
tation, as much injury may arise from its premature develope-
ment. When the tree has put forth its foliage, the colour of its
protecting support can have no influence in any way : the leaves
cover the surface and absorb the rays by their own inherent
powers. The only known advantage which can be taken of this
peculiar power in dark substances, 1s in the case of covering up
fruits, to preserve them from the ravages of flies; grapes which
~ are enclosed in bags of black crape ripen better than those in
white ; but I believe that it is admitted that neither do so well
as those which are freely exposed.

I come now to the consideration of a confined atmosphere,
‘the management of which being entirely dependent upon art,
requires in the Horticulturist a more extended acquaintance
with the laws of nature, with regard to climate, and greater skill
and experience in the application of his means. The plants
which require this protection are in the most artificial state
which it is possible to conceive; for not only are their stems
and foliage subject to the vicissitudes of the air in which they
are immersed, but in most cases their roots also. The soil in
which they are set to vegetate is generally contained in porous
pots of earthen ware, to the interior surface of which the tender
tibres quickly penetrate and spread in every direction ; they are
thus exposed to every change of temperature and humidity, and
are liable to great chills from any sudden increase of evaporation.
This part of the subject naturally divides itself into two branches.
The first regards the treatment of such exotics as are wholly
dependent upon the artificial atmosphere of hot-houses: the
second refers to the management of those hardier plants which ©
only require..to: be preserved in green-houses part of the year,

1826.] Mr. Daniell on Climate: 125

but during the summer months are exposed to the changes of
the openair. I shall offer afew remarks first on the atmosphere
of a hot-house.

The principal considerations which generally guide the
management of gardeners in this delicate department are those
of temperature; but there are others regarding moisture which
are, | conceive, of at least equal importance. The inhabitants
of the hot-house are all natives of the torrid zone, and the cli-
mate of this region is not only distinguished by an unvarying
high degree of heat, but also by a very vaporous atmosphere.
Captain Sabine, in his meteorological researches between the
tropics, rarely found, at the hottest period of the day, so great a
difference as ten degrees between the temperature of the air and
the dew-point; making the degree of saturation about 730, but
most frequently 5° or 850°; and the mean saturation of the air
could not have exceeded 910. Now I believe that if the hygro-
meter were consulted, it would be no uncommon thing to find in
hot-houses, as at present managed, a difference of 20° between
the point of condensation and the air, or a degree of moisture
falling short of 500, The danger of over-watering most of the
plants, especially at particular periods of their growth, is in.
general very justly appreciated ; and in consequence the earth.
at their roots is kept in a state comparatively dry; the only
supply of moisture being commonly derived from the pots, and.
the exhalations of the leaves is not enough to saturate the air,
and the consequence is a prodigious power of evaporation. This
is injurious to the plants in two ways: in the first place, if the
pots be at all moist, and not protected by tan or other litter, it
produces a considerable degree of cold upon their surface, and
communicates a chill to the tender fibres with which they are
lined. The danger of such a chill is carefully guarded against
in the case of watering, for it is one of the commonest precau-:
tions not to use any water of a temperature at all inferior to that
of the hot air of the house ; inattention to this point is quickly
followed by diastrous consequences. The danger is quite as
great from a moist flower pot placed in a very dry atmosphere.

The custom of lowering the temperature of fluids in hot
climates, by placing them in coolers of wet porous earthen ware,
is well known, and the common garden pot is as good a cooler
for this purpose as can be made. Under the common circum-
stances of the atmosphere of a hot-house, a depression of
temperature amounting to 15 or 20 degrees, may easily be pro-
duced upon such an evaporating surface. But the greatest
mischief will arise from the increased exhalations of the plants
so circumstanced, and the consequent exhaustion of the powers
ofvegetation. The flowers of the torrid zone are many of them
of a very succulent nature, largely supplied with cuticular pores,
and their tender buds are unprovided with those integuments

196 Mr. Daniell on Climate. [Fes.

and othet wonderful provisions by which nature guards her first
embryo productions im more uncertain climates. ‘Comparatively
speaking they shoot naked into the world, and are suited only
to that enchanting mildness of the atmosphere, for which the
whole system of their organization is adapted. In the tropical
climates the sap never ceases to flow, and sudden checks or
accelerations of its progress are as injurious to its healthy func-
tions as they are necessary in the plants of more variable
climates to the formation of those hybernacula which are pro-
vided for the preservation of the shoots in the winter season.
Some idea may be formed of the prodigiously increased drain
upon the functions ofa plant arising from an increase of dryness
in the air from the following consideration. If we suppose the
amount of its perspiration, in a given time, to be 57 grains, the
temperature of the air being 75°, and the dew-point 70, or the
saturation of the air being 849, the amount would be increased
to 120 grains in the same time if the dew-point were to remain
stationary, and the temperature were to rise to 80°; or in other
words, if the saturation ofthe air were to fall to 726.

’ Besides this power of transpiration, the leaves of vegetables
exercise also an absorbent function, which must be no less dis-
arranged by any deficiency of moisture. Some plants derive
the greatest portion of their nutriment from the vaporous atmo-
sphere, and all are more or less dependent upon the same source,
The Nepenthes distillatoria lays up a store of water in the cup
formed at the end of its leaves, which is probably secreted from
the air, and applied to the exigencies of the plant when exposed
to drought, and the quantity, which is known to vary in the hot~
house, is no doubt connected with the state of moisture of the
atmosphere.

These considerations must be sufficient, I imagine, to place
in a strong light the necessity of a strict attention to the atmo-
sphere of vapour in our artificial climates, and to enforce as
absolute an imitation as possible of the example of nature. The
means of effecting this is the next object of our inquiry.

Tropical plants require to be watered at the root with great
catition, and it is impossible that a sufficient supply of vapour
can be kept up from this source alone. There can however be
no difficulty in keeping the floor of the house and the flues
continually wet, and an atmosphere of great elasticity may thus
be maintained in a way perfectly analogous to the natural
process. Where steam is employed as the means of communi-
cating heat, an occasional injection of it into the air may also
be had recourse to; but this method would require much atten-
tion on the part of the superintendant, whereas the first cannot
easily be carried to excess.

It is true that damp air or floating moisture of long continu-
alice would also be detrimental to the health of the plants, for it

1826.] Mr. Daniell on Climate. 197

is absolutely necessary that the process of transpiration should
proceed ; but there is no danger that the high temperature of
the hot-house should ever attain the point of saturation b
spontaneous evaporation. The temperature of the external air
will always keep down the force of the vapour; for as in the
natural atmosphere the dew- point at the surface of the earth is’
regulated by the cold of the upper regions, so in a house the
point of deposition is governed by the temperature of the glass’
with which it is in contact. In a well ventilated hot-house, by
‘watering the floor in summer, we may bring the dew-point
within four or five degrees of the temperature of the air, and the
glass will be perfectly free from moisture; by closing the venti-
lators we shall probably raise the heat 10 or 15 degrees, but
the degree of saturation will remain nearly the same, and a
copious dew will quickly form upon the glass, and will shortly
run down in streams. A process of distillation is thus esta-
blished, which prevents the vapour from attaining the full elasti-
city of the temperature.

- This action is beneficial within certain limits, and at, particular
seasons of the year, but when the external air is very cold, or
radiation proceeds very rapidly, it may become excessive and
prejudicial. It is a well known fact, but one which I believe
has never yet been properly explained, that by attempting to
keep up in a hot-house the same degree of heat at night as
during the day, the plants become scorched ; from what has
been premised it will be evident that this is owing to the low
temperature of the glass, and the consequent low dew-point in
the house, which occasions a degree of dryness which quickly
exhausts the juices. ;

Much of this evil might be prevented by such simple and
cheap means as an external covering of mats or canvass.

The heat of the glass of a hot-house at night cannot exceed
the mean of the external and internal air, and taking these at
80° and 40°, 20 degrees of dryness are kept up in the interior,
ora degree of saturation not exceeding 528. ‘To this in a clear
night we may add at least 6° for the effects of radiation, to
which the glass is particularly exposed, which would reduce the
saturation to 454°, and this is a degree of drought which must
be nearly destructive. It will be allowed that the case which I
have selected is by no means extreme, and it is one which is
liable to occur even in the summer months. Now by an exter-
nal covering of mats, &c. the effects of radiation would be at
once annihilated, and a thin stratum of air would be kept in
contact with the glass which would become warmed, and con-
sequently tend to prevent the dissipation of the heat. But no
means would of course be so effective as double glass including.
a stratum of air. Indeed such a precaution in winter seems
almost essential to any great degree of perfection in this branch

128 Mr. Daniell on Climate. {Fez.

of Horticulture. When it is considered that a temperature at
night of 20° is no very unfrequent occurrence in this country,
the saturation of the air may upon such occasions fall to 120°,
and such an evil can only at present be guarded against by
diminishing the interior heat in proportion; but whether we run
upon Scylla or Charybdis is no very desirable choice.

By materially lowering the temperature we communicate a
check which is totally inconsistent with the welfare of tropical
vegetation. The chill which is instantaneously communicated
to the glass by a fall of rain and snow, and the consequent eva-
poration from its surface, must also precipitate the internal
vapour, and dry the included air to a very considerable amount,
and the effect should be closely watched. I do not conceive
that the diminution of light which would be occasioned by the
double panes would be sufficient to occasion any serious objec-.
tion to the plan. The difference would not probably amount to
as much as that between hot-houses with wooden rafters and
lights, and those constructed with curvilinear iron bars, two of
which have been erected in the Garden of the Horticultural
Society. It might also possibly occasion a greater expansion
of the foliage ; for it is known that in houses with a northern
aspect, the leaves grow to a larger size than in houses which
front the south. Nature thus makes an effort to counteract the
deficiency of light by increasing the surface upon which it is
destined to act.

The present method of ventilating hot-houses is also objec-
tionable, upon the same principles which I have been endeavour-
ing to explain. A communication is at once opened with the
external air, while the hot and vaporous atmosphere is allowed
to escape at the roof; the consequence is, that the dry external
air rushes in with considerable velocity, and becoming heated
in its course rapidly abstracts the moisture from the pots and
foliage. This is the more dangerous, in as much as it acts with
a rapidity proportioned in a very high degree to its motion. I[
would suggest it as a matter of easy experiment whether great
benefit might not arise from warming the air to a certain extent,
and making it traverse a wet surface before it is allowed to enter
the house.

There is one practice universally adopted by gardeners, which
is confirmatory of these theoretical speculations, namely, that
of planting tender cuttings of plants in a hot bed, and covering
them with a double glass. Experience has shown them that
many kinds will not succeed under any other treatment. The
end of this is obviously to preserve a saturated atmosphere ;
and it affords a parallel case to that of Dr. Wells of the antici-
pation of theory by practice.

The effect of keeping the floor of the hot-house continually
wet has been already tried at the Society’s Garden, at my

1826.] Mr. Daniell on Climate. 129

suggestion, and it has been found that the plants have grown,
with unprecedented vigour: indeed their luxuriance must strike
the most superficial observer.

To the human feelings the impression of an atmosphere so
saturated with moisture is very different from one heated to the
same degree without this precaution ; and any one coming out
of a house heated in the common way, into one well charged
with vapour, cannot fail to be struck with the difference. Those
who are used to hot climates have declared that the feel and
smell of the latter exactly assimilate to those of the tropical
regions.

But there is a danger attending the very success of this expe-
riment which cannot be too carefully guarded against. The
trial has been made in the summer months, when the tempera-
ture of the external air has not been low, nor the change from
day to night very great. In proportion to the luxuriance of the
vegetation will be the danger of any sudden check, and it is
much to be feared, that unless proper precautions are adopted,
the cold, long nights of winter may produce irreparable
mischief. ?

I am aware that a great objection attaches to my plan of the
double glass, on account of the expense, but I think that this
may appear greater at first sight than it may afterwards be found
to be in practice. It is however, at all events, I submit, a point
worthy of the Horticultural Society to determine, and if the
suggestion should be found to be effective, the lights of many
frames which are not commonly in use in winter might, without
much trouble, be fitted to slide over the hot-houses during the
severe season: and in the spring, when they are wanted for
other purposes, their places might be supplied at night by mats
or canvass.

The principles which I have been endeavouring to illustrate
should be doubtless extended to the pinery and the melon
frame, in the latter of which a saturated atmosphere might be
maintained by shallow pans of water. An increase in the size
of the fruit might be anticipated from this treatment, without
that loss of flavour which would attend the communication of
water to the roots of the plants. .
_ [have but few additional observations to offer upon the artifi-
cial climate of a green-house. The remarks which have been
made upon the atmosphere of the hot-house are applicable to it ;
though not to the same extent. The plants which are subject
to this culture seldom require an artificial temperature greater
than 45° or 50°, and few of them would receive injury from a
‘temperature so low as 35°. When in the house they are eflec-
tually sheltered from the effects of direct radiation, which can-
not take place through glass ; but the glass itself radiates very
freely, and’ thus communicates a chill to the air, which might

New Series, vou, xt. K

130 Mr. Daniell on Climate. [Fes.

effectually be prevented by rolling mats. With this precaution,
fire would be but rarely wanted ina good situation, to commuai-
cate warmth. But in this damp climate it may be required to
dissipate moisture. The state of the air should be as eatefully
watched with this view as where a high temperature is necessary,
to guard against the contrary extreme. Free transpiration, as
{have before remarked, is necessary to the healthy progress of
vegetation, and when any mouldiness or damp appears upon the
plants, the temperature of the air should be moderately raised,
and free ventilation allowed. When the pots in the proper
season are moved into the open air, it would contribute greatly
to their health to preserve them from the effects of too great
evaporation, to imbed them well in moss or litter: as a substi+
tute for this precaution, the plants are generally exposed to a
northern or eastern aspect where the influence of the sun but
rarely reaches them, but which would be very beneficial if their
roots were properly protected. The advantage of such a protec-
tion may be seen when the pots are plunged into the soil, a
method which communicates the greatest luxuriance to the
plants, but unfits them to resume their winter stations.

When a green-house is made use of, as it often is, after the
temoval of the pots, to force the vine, the same precautions
should be attended to as in the management of the hot-house,
and the elasticity of the vapour should be maintained by wetting
the floor; but after a certain period a great degree of dryness
should be allowed to prevail, to enable the tree to ripen its wood,
and form the winter protection for its buds. In this its treat-
iment differs from that of the tropical plants, which requite no
such change, and to which, on the contrary, it would be highly
detrimental. The same observation applies to forcing houses
for peaches, and other similar kinds of trees. As soon as the
fruit is all matured they should be freely exposed to the changes
of the weather.

Upon an attentive consideration and review of the subject, it
appears to me certain that a frequent consultation of the indica-
tions of the hygrometer is quite as necessary to the Horticultu-
rist as of those of the thermometer, and it is not unworthy of the
consideration of the Horticultural Society, whether correct
registers of the state of the climate, both m their houses and
out of doors, and a connected series of experiments upon the
modifications of which it is susceptible, might not contribute
something to the perfection of that art, which they are making
stich honourable exertions to perfect and communicate.

To me it will be a source of great satisfaction if any observa~
tions which I have made, or may make, upon the subject of
climate, should prove to be at all instrumental in forwarding
their important views. ' OH

1826.] ‘On the Means of detecting Lithia in Minerals. 131

ARTICLE X,

On the Means of detecting Lithia in Minerals by the Blowpipe.*
By Edward Turner, MD. FRSE. &c. Lecturer on Chemistry,
and Feliow of the Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh.
(Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Dec. 5, 1825.)

Ar the conclusion of a paper on mica, published in the last
number of the “ Edinburgh Journal of Science,” I have made
some observations on the colour communicated to the flame of
a candle by the three alkalies, potash, soda, and lithia, by means
of which they might be readily distinguished from each other.
It seemed probable, from some facts there stated, that a body
must be fluid, in order to communicate its characteristic colour
to flame ; and this idea became more plausible from the consi-
deration, that the lithion-micas fuse readily, and then tinge the
flame red, while some other minerals which do not produce that
effect, though they contain lithia in considerable quantity, are
very difficult of fusion. Hence it occurred to me, that the last
description of minerals might also be made to redden flame,
could we by any means increase their fusibility ; and the follow-
ing observation is in support of this notion.

_ A minute particle of spodumene, previously reduced to fine
powder, and made into a paste with water, was exposed to the
flame of the blowpipe. Fora time the mineral did not fuse, nor
was a trace of redness visible ; but by urging the heat, fusion did
at length occur, and at that instant the flame was tinged of a
red colour, though in a slight degree. On mixing the same mi-
neral with fluor spar, its Fasibility was considerably increased,
and it gave a more distinct red hue to the flame.

_ But though the liquid form is favourable to the communica-
tion of colour to Hame, it is not always an essential condition.
Thus the carbonate of copper tinges the Hame of a candle green
without fusing; and if the carbonate of strontia be strongly
heated before the blowpipe, it phosphoresces remarkably, and
yields a red colour to the flame, though the assay remains
patiently solid, Nor does a body cause its peculiar colour to
appear from the mere circumstance of becoming fluid. Spodu-
mene, for example, can be made to fuse by the addition of the
carbonate of soda or potash, but no redness occurs. Fusion is
tendered still more perfect by the action of boracic acid, or the
ee of soda and ammonia, but without a trace of redness

.

e ne visible.
__ These facts prove that a certain chemical condition of a body
1g necessary, in order that it should produce its effect on flame,

and that this circumstance has a greater influence than form.

* Edinburgh Journal of Science.
K 2

132 Dr. Turner on the Means of detecting Lithia [Fes.

From the action of fluor spar on spodumene, I was desirous
of trying the effect of free fluoric acid on that mineral. It was
accordingly mixed with some of the bifluate of potash, and a
little of the mixture, made into a paste with a drop of water,
was exposed by means of platinum wire to the flame of the
blowpipe. It fused very easily, and emitted a brilliant red
flame, far more distinct than that occasioned by the fluate of
lime. To vary the experiment still further, a mixture was made,
composed of fluate of lime, and bisulphate of potash in atomic
proportion ; that is, one of the former to about four and a half
of the latter. When this flux was mixed with an equal quantity
of spodumene, the effect was, if any thing, still greater than in
the previcus instance. Both these fluxes appear to act by giv-
ing out fluoric acid at a high temperature, which destroys the
composition of the mineral by combining with the silica, and
setting the lithia free. The latter flux is more effectual than the
former, because it requires a stronger heat before yielding
fluoric acid, and hence the disengagement takes place under the
most favourable circumstances. It should therefore be preferred
in practice.

In performing these experiments, it is important to keep in
view the action of the flux itselfon flame. Those that have been
just recommended communicate a faint lilac colour, owing to
the presence of potash, which cannot be mistaken for the action
of lithia by any one who compares both effects together, as I
shall immediately demonstrate to the Society. But in case any
doubt should arise, it is easy to avoid the difficulty by employing
a flux that contains no potash. Such a one may be made b
mixing one part of the fluate of lime with one and a half of the
sulphate of ammonia. This mixture acts on spodumene in the
same way as the preceding, and doubtless from the same cause.
It communicates a pale bluish-green colour to the flame at the
first moment, and before fusion occurs—a property possessed
by several of the salts of ammonia; but there is no.appearance
that can be mistaken for the red colour of lithia.

When petalite is heated alone before the blowpipe, it yields
no trace of redness; but if subjected to the process just recom-
mended, it affords abundant evidence of the presence of lithia.
Indeed, from the great affinity of fluoric acid for silica, it is
obvious that no siliceous mineral can withstand its action; and
there can be almost as little doubt that the presence of lithia
may be detected in any such compound by the process which is
so successful with spodumene and petalite.

The advantage of possessing an easy and expeditious method
of ascertaining the presence of lithia in mineral bodies is two-
fold. Inthe first place, the mineralogist and chemist possesses
a test for spodumene and petalite, from the want of which other’
minerals have sometimes been mistaken for them, and the error

1826.) in Minerals by the Blowpipe. 133

only discovered at the close of a tedious chemical process.
Secondly, we obtain a method of ascertaining the presence or
absence of lithia in other minerals. I have examined a consi-
derable number of substances with this view, but have not
hitherto been successful.

As several of the salts of strontia and lime possess the
property of communicating a red colour to flame, it is natural
to inquire, whether the presence of those earths in a mineral
might not give rise to fallacy; and I have accordingly studied
the subject with care. Though there is little danger of mistak-
ing a native carbonate or sulphate of strontia for a siliceous
mineral containing lithia, it may not be superfluous to mention
the characters they exhibit before the blowpipe. When a par-
ticle of strontianite, powdered and made into a paste as usual,
is exposed on platinum wire to the blowpipe flame, it communi-
cates a yellowish colour to it. By continuing the blast fora
little time, phosphorescence commences, and soon afterwards a
red colour makes its appearance. This latter effect depends on
the expulsion of carbonic acid; for no redness is visible till the
phosphorescence sets in, and then the assay gives a strong
brown stain to moistened turmeric paper. The property of
strontianite in colouring flame is lessened by mixing it with the
flux. When celestine is exposed in like manner, no redness
appears at first; but if a strong heat be kept up for a minute or
two, the salt is decomposed, phosphorescence commences, fol-
lowed by a red hue, and the assay is found to be alkaline. This
change is facilitated by mixing the celestine with the flux of
bisulphate of potash and fluor spar. Complete fusion then
occurs, though without the least trace of a red colour; but on
continuing the blast, the assay gradually becomes solid, and
then the strontia is speedily reduced to the caustic state. I
have been thus particular in describing these appearances,
because they afford us a useful test to distinguish the native
salts of strontia from those of baryta; while they cannot be
confounded with the effects produced by lithia.

The carbonate and sulphate of lime give rise to the same
phenomena, though the effect is less distinct ; and the colour,
as in the case of strontia, does not appear till the lime is reduced
to its caustic condition. I have examined a considerable num-
ber of silicecus minerals containing lime, in some of which, as
datolite and apophyllite, that earth is present in a large propor-
tion ; but none of them, whether alone or with flux, give a red
colour to the flame of the blowpipe. It is probable, from this
fact, that strontia, did it chance to occur ina siliceous mineral,
would likewise be inert; or if it did redden the flame, it would
be under circumstances which would distinguish it from the
action of lithia, For the strontia would be converted into a

134 Mr. Cooper on ‘[Frez.

sulphate by the flux, and would not produce its effect till that
salt was decomposed. |

It is very desirable that the presence of potash and soda in
minerals could also be discovered by the blowpipe. The pale
lilac produced by potash, though it. enables a salt of that
alkali to be readily distinguished from the salts of soda or
lithia, is too faint for affording a test of its presence in mi-
nerals, unless it exists in considerable quantity. The. pro-
perty soda possesses of communicating a yellowish colour, and
of making the flame larger at the same time, may be turned
to some advantage; for several minerals that contain soda
act on the blowpipe’s flame in the same manner as soda itself,
from which we may be led to infer the presence of that alkali
inthem. This has been observed in sodalite, analcime, cha-
basie, albite, pitchstone, and several others. Unfortunately,
however, a yellowish colour may be produced by other sub-
stances besides soda, so that it is a test which cannot altogether
be relied on with certainty. Thus, a similar effect is occa-
sioned, though in a less degree, by the fluate of lime, and,
perhaps, by lime under other circumstances. However this
may be, it is certain that mamy minerals that contain soda give
® very distinct yellow colour to flame; it is a circumstance,
therefore, which may be useful to the chemist and mineralogist,
and as such I mention it.

I beg leave to observe, in conclusion, that experiments on
the colour communicated to flame should be performed with a
tallow candle, the colour of which is better fitted for the pur-
pose than that of a spirit-lamp.

ARTICLE XI.

Description of a new Species of Grosbeak, inhabiting the North-
western Territory of the United States. By William Cooper.*

Tus genus Loxia being restricted by the most eminent
modern omithologists to the Crossbills, the remaining species
of graniverous birds having a conical, straight, and pointed
bill, and which were arranged by Linnzus, and the authors who
have followed him, as a species of Loxia, are now all compre-
hended under the genus Fringilla. The number of species
thus brought together is consequently very great; but they
present such a gradual passage from one character to another,
that it is found impracticable to separate them into well defined
and natural genera. In order to avoid, however, the inconve-
nience which would result from so many species being compre-

* From the Annals of the Lyceum of the Natural History of New York.

1826.) new Species of Grosbeak. 135

shended under one head, Temminck proposes to subdivide them
into three sections, characterized by the forms of their bills,
-yiz, laticones, brevicones, and longicunes. This simple arrange-
‘ment appears preferable to the multitude of artificial genera
which some nomenclaters have attempted to establish; or it
would perhaps be more convenient to consider these sections as
subgenera, under the names of Coccothraustes, Fringilia, and
Carduelis, as, suggested by Mr. Charles Bonaparte, in his
judicious Observations on the Nomenclature of Wilson’s Orni-
‘thology.* The first of these comprises nearly all the Lome of
authors which are not Crossbills, and to it must be referred the
species which is the subject of this notice.

FRINGILLA VESPERTINA, (nobis.)

BF, fronte flavo; vertice alis cauddque nigris; macula alarum
alba.

- Description. Length 8+ inches: bill yellow; strong, co-
nical, swelling, pointed, depressed above at the base where it
forms an angle in the feathers of the front; the upper mandible
turning a little downwards at the point, and slightly notched,
‘edges of both sharp and cutting: nares roundish, partly con-
‘cealed by the black vibrisse: a narrow black line surrounds the
base of the upper mandible: front and a band passing over and
behind the eyes yellow ; crown of the head black: cheeks brown:
throat and neck olive-brown passing downwards into yellow,
which is the colour of the back and all the under parts of the
body, flanks and tail coverts: lesser wing coverts, primaries and
first secondaries black : greater wing coverts and inner secondaries
white on their lower half, forming a large white spot on the
wing ;:the first three primaries of equal length and longer than
the rest: tail of 12 feathers, slightly forked, entirely black: feeé
light brown.

Cabinet of the Lyceum.

OxsEeRvATION. In the natural series of American species,
this bird should be arranged as the first of the series; being
intermediate between the F. coccothraustes of Europe and the
F’. cardinalis. To the former of these, which is the type of the
subgenus, it is nearly allied, but is considerably larger, besides
other differences, as the description given will show.

The specimen from which this description is taken, was sent
to the Lyceum from Sault Ste. Marie, near Lake Superior, by
Mr. H. R. Schoolcraft, and is labelled pa a lied the
name given it by the Chippewa Indians. Mr. Schoolcraft has
since favoured me with the following account. It is a little
singular that the meaning of the Chippewa name should so

* Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences, vol. iv. p. 39.

136 Mr. Cooper ona new Species of Grosbeak. | [Fa.

nearly coincide with that of the subgenus in the language of
the system.

“ Paushkundamo.” This word is derived from the Chip-
pewa verb paushka-un, to break. The termination indicates
the object acted on, and is in accordance with one of the rules
of their language, which permits the formation of vompound
words froma verb and substantive, dropping one or more syl-
lables of each forthe sake of euphony. The word paushkaun

.is the animate form of the verb, and is used only in particular
reference to soft, fleshy, or vegetable substances, as a fly, a
berry, &c. The word will therefore admit of being rendered
JSty-breaker, berry-breaker, &c.

“« This bird appeared about Sault Ste. Marie, M.T. during
the first week in April 1823. The individual under examination
was shot on the 7th April, in the eventing. An Indian boy was
attracted into the woods by its peculiar, and to him strange
note. There were a few birds in company: they were seen for
a short time about the place; but none have since appeared.
The species is said to be common about the head of Lake
Superior, at Fond du Lac, &c.” .

‘Major Delafield, in the execution of his duties as agent of the
United States for boundaries, met with the same bird in the
month of August 1823, near the Savannah river, north-west
from Lake Superior, and has obligingly communicated the fol-
lowing extract from his notes made at the time.

“ At twilight, the bird which I had before heard to cry in a
singular strain, and only at this hour, made its appearance
close by my tent, and a flock of about half a dozen perched on
the bushes in my encampment. They approached so near, and
were so fearless, that my canoe-men attempted to catch them,
but in vain. I recognised this bird as similar to one in posses-
sion of Mr. Schoolcraft, at the Sault Ste. Marie.

“Its mournful cry about the hour of my encamping, (which
was at sunset) had before attracted my attention, but I could
never get sight of the bird but on this occasion. There is an
extensive plain and swamp through which flows the Savannah
river, covered with a thick growth of sapin trees. My infer-
ence was then, and is now, that this bird dwells in such dark
retreats, and leaves them at the approach of night.”

1826.) Proceedings of Philosophical Societies, 137

ArticLe XII.
Proceedings of Philosophical Societies.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

_ Dec. 22 (continued).—A paper was read, On the Poison of the
Common Toad; by J. Davy, MD. FRS. .

The popular belief in the venomous nature of the Toad, Dr.
Davy states, though of great antiquity, has been rejected as a
vulgar prejudice by modern naturalists, decidedly so by Cuvier;
but like many other long received and prevalent opinions, it is a
true one, and the denial of it by philosophers has resulted from su-
_perficial examination. Dr. D. found the venomous matter to be
contained in follicles, chiefly in the cutis vera, and about the head
and shoulders, but also distributed generally over the body, and
even on the extremities. On the application of pressure, this
fluid exudes, or even spirts out to a considerable distance, and
may be collected in sufficient quantity for examination. It is
extremely acrid when applied to the tongue, resembling the
extract of aconite in this respect, and it even acts upon the hands.
It is soluble, with a small residuum, in water and in alcohol, and
the solutions are not affected by those of acetate of lead and
corrosive sublimate. On solution in ammonia, it continues
acrid ; it dissolves in nitric acid, to which it imparts a purple
colour. By combination with potash or soda, it is rendered less
acrid, apparently by partial decomposition. As left by evapo-
ration of its aqueous or alcoholic solutions, it is highly inflam-
mable; and the residuary matter that appears to give it
consistence seems to be albumen. Though more acrid than the
poison of the most venomous serpents, it produces no ill effect
on being introduced into the circulation; a chicken inoculated
with it was not affected.

The author conjectures that this “ sweltered venom,” as it is
correctly termed by our great Dramatist, being distributed over
the integuments, serves to defend the Toad from the attacks of
carnivorous animals: “to eat a toad” has long been held
as an opprobrious difficulty ; and the animal is still further
protected in this respect by the horny nature of its cutis, which
coutains much phosphate of lime, &c. As the venom consists
in part of an inflammable substance, it is probably excrementi-
tious, and an auxiliary to the agtion of the lungs in decarboniz-
ing the blood. ‘This view of its use is confirmed by the fact’ that
one of the two branches of the pulmonary artery supplies the
skin, its ramifications being most numerous, where the follicles
of venom are thickest.

138 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. 3 [Fen.

Dr. Davy has found the skin of the Toad to contain pores of

two kinds ; the larger, chiefly confined to particular situations,
and which, when the skin is held up to the light, appear as
iridescent circles, and the smaller, more numerously and gene-
rally distributed, which appear as luminous points of a yellowish
colour. Externally these pores are covered with cuticle, and
some of the larger ones even with rete mucosum ; internally
they are lined with delicate cellular tissue. By inflating the
skin, Dr. D. ascertained that it was not furnished with spira-
cula, the existence of which he had been led to suspect by some
particular circumstances in the physiology of the animal.
- A paper, by the same author, was also read, On the Heart of
Animals belonging to the Genus Rana. Dr. Davy has discovered
that the heart of the Common Toad, the Bull Frog,and the Com-
mon Frog, instead of consisting of one auricle and one ventricle,
as generally stated, has two auricles, divided by a septum of
fibrous substance ; and he has reason to believe that this strue-
ture prevails throughout the order of Batraciens. This discovery
removes the anomaly among Reptiles supposed to be presented
by these animals, as forming a portion of the link between
Minceenaiteen and. Fishes, and preserves unbroken the chain of
connection between Reptiles and Fishes arising from the analogy
of their respective organs of respiration.

Jan. 12, 1826.—Dr. T.S. Tiarks, and Sir C. Wetherell, Knt.
his Majesty’s Solicitor-General, were respectively admitted
Fellows of the Society.

A paper was read, entitled, “ Observations on the Heat of
July, 1825, together with some Remarks on sensible Cold; by
W. Heberden, MD. FRS.”

These observations were made on the author’s lawn at Datchet,
in Berkshire, by means of thermometers suspended in the shade
of trees: the highest temperature observed was 97° Fahr. Dr.
Heberden remarks, that the extraordinary weather of this month
passed away without rain, lightning, change of wind, or any
other obvious cause ; and cites the nearly parallel case of the

ear 1808, as recorded in the Society’s observations, and also

y Mr. Cavendish. He gives some observations and experi-
ments on a method of ascertaining the senstble heat, which he
_ believes to be much above that indicated by the thermometer,
by means of previously raising the thermometer to a high tem-
perature, and then noting its successive decrements in equal
times on exposing it to the open air. In the concluding
remarks on sensible cold, Dr. H. states his opinion that its chief
cause is the loss of heat by the body effected by the action of
the wind, not by the moisture of the surrounding atmosphere.

A communication was also read, entitled, “ An Account ofa
Series of Observations to determine the Difference of Longitude
between the National Observatories of Greenwich and Paris ; by

1896) Geological Society. 139

J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. Sec. RS.: communicated by the Board
of Longitude.”

In tlus paper, after stating the wish expressed by the French
Ministry of War, that the above determination should be made,
with the ready accession to their desire of our own Board of
‘Longitude, and describing the method resorted to, Mr. Herschel
gives the observations in detail. They were made by himself
and one French officer on this side of the Channel, and by
Capt. Sabine and another French officer on the coast of France.
Their general result is 9’ 21,6,” for the difference of longitude
between the two Observatories ; and though many of the obser-
vations had been rendered unavailable by untoward circum-
‘stances which it was impossible to foresee or to obviate, Mr. H.
stated that this determination was not likely to require a cor-
rection exceeding 1-10th of a second, and very unlikely to want
one of twice that amount.

Jan. 19.—The Right Hon. George Canning, his Majesty’s
Principal Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, having been
elected into the Society at the preceding meeting, but being
unable to attend for admission, on account of the pressure of
public business, requested that his name might be inserted in
the printed lists of the Society, which was granted accordingly.
S. H. Christie, Esq. was admitted a Fellow of the Society ; and
the following papers were read :

On the Cambridge Transit Instrument, being a supplement to
a former paper; by Prof. Woodhouse, FRS.

_ On the Magnetic Influence of the Solar Rays; by 8S. H.
Christie, Esq. AM. FRS.

Jan. 26.—N.B. Edmonston, Esq. was admitted a Fellow of
the Society, and a paper was read, On the Barometer ; by J. F.
Daniell, Esq. FRS.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

_ Nov. 4.—A paper was read entitled, An Account of some
Geological Specimens collected by Capt. P. P. King, in his
Survey of the Coasts of Australia ; and by Robert Brown,
Esq., on the Shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria, during the
iy of Captain Flinders. By W. H. Fitton, M.D.
V.P.G.S. &e.

- The survey of Captain King commenced on the north east
coast of Australia, about the latitude of 21° south, and pro-
ceeded northward and westward (omitting the Gulf of Carpen-
taria previously examined by Capt. Flinders), and southward,
on the western shore, to about the latitude of 25°, where the
coast had been examined by the French expedition under
Capt. Baudin. The chasm in Capt. King’s specimens has
been supplied by those collected on the shores of the Gulf of

140 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [Fes.

Carpentaria, by Mr. Brown, who accompanied Capt. Flinders in
his survey of the coasts of New Holland.

The land visible from the sea on the north-east coast, is in

general mountainous, as far north as Cape Weymouth, between
‘the latitudes 12° and 13° (South):—A high and rocky range
especially, which begins about latitude 25°, being continued north-
“ward ina direction nearly parallel to the shore, for more than
150 miles without interruption. The outline and aspect of this
range, and of several other groups of mountains, are irregular,
and resemble those of primitive tracts; peaked summits also are of
frequent occurrence both on the main land and the adjacent
islands. Mount Dryander, about latitude 20° 12’, one of the
chief mountains, is nearly 4500 feet high ; Mount Hinchinbroke,
lat. 8° 22’, more than 2000 feet; and several other mountains
in this quarter are of considerable elevation.

Along this part of the coast, granite has been found, in de-
tached points, through a space of about 500 miles: and rocks
of the floetz-trap formation occur in several of the islands off
the shore.

The coast-line, on the north of latitude 14°, is thrown back
about 40 miles to the westward of its previous course; and,
about the same point, the elevation of the land declines: the
general height of the main land about Cape York, the north-
eastern point of Australia, is not more than 400 or 500 feet.

The eastern shore of the Gulf of Carpentaria, occupying a
space of about 500 miles from north to south, is very low, and
very uniform in its outline. The rock on the shore at Coen’s
River, the only point examined upon this coast, was found to be
‘calcareous sandstone of recent formation. The western shore of
the gulf is more broken, and of higher level; and the speci-
mens from thence consist of granite and primitive slaty rocks ;
upon which repose quartzose sandstone and conglomerate,
identical in character with the rocks which are found in great
abundance further tu the west on the northern shore, and on
the north-west coast, and with the most ancient sandstones and
conglomerates of Europe. Clink-stone also, and other rocks of
the trap-formation, occur among the specimens from the islands
in this part of Australia: but the chains of islands which form
the north-western verge of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and are
remarkable for the similarity of their structure, and their uni-
form direction, appear to consist principally of quartzose sand-
stone and conglomorate, reposing upon primitive rocks. The
main land of the north coast, from about longitude 135°, to
Melville Island about 131°, is in general low, and is inter-
rupted by two considerable streams named Liverpool and
Alligator’s rivers ; the last of which consists, in fact, of three
separate branches. The specimens from Goulburn’s Islands on

1826.] Geological Society. 141

the north of this part of the coast are composed of reddish
quartzose sandstone.

One of the most remarkable inlets on the north-west of Aus-
tralia is Cambridge Gulf, about longitude 121° and latitude
15°: it has been traced to more than 60 miles from the
sea, between hills from 150 to 400 feet in height, which have
in general flat summits, and are composed of sandstone of a
reddish hue, and of the same characters with that already men-
tioned. The specimens from Lacrosse Island, at the entrance
of this gulf, are not to be distinguished from the slaty strata
of the old red-sandstone, which occur in the banks of the Avon,
between Clifton and the Severn.

The outline of the north-west coast is remarkably broken,and the
adjacent sea is studded with very numerous islands ; the forms
of which, as well as of the hills on the main land, are remarkable
for their flat summits. In two detached points about 70 miles
apart, Port Warrender and Careening Bay, epidote has been
found in considerable quantity, both crystallized in veins, and
in a compact form as a component in a rock of a conglomerated
and amygdaloidal structure. Prince Regent’s river, the chief
inlet of the north-western shore, has nearly a rectilinear course,
from north-west to south-east, for more than 60 miles; and
its banks of sandstone are in some places between 300 and 400
feet high. The coast to the south-west of this inlet has not yet
been completely surveyed; but several openings have been
observed there, of such width as to render the existence of
rivers not improbable.

The shore on the western coast is in several places covered
with extensive dunes of sand, with which are associated in
many instances beds and masses of a very recent arenaceous
breccia, abounding in shells concreted by carbonate of lime.
This formation, which is particularly remarkable in the islands
and on the shores adjacent to Shark’s Bay, about latitude 25°,
is analogous to that which occurs very extensively in Sicily, at
Nice, and several other places on the shores of the Mediterra-
nean, and of the West India Islands, and on many parts of the
coasts within the Tropics. In New Holland it generally consists
of sand cemented by stalagmitic or tufaceous carbonate of lime,
containing angular fragments of a compound of the same nature,
but previously consolidated and broken, along with numerous
shells and fragments of shells, very nearly resembling those of
the adjacent seas. Its date appears to be more recent than that
of the beds which constitute the Paris and London basins; but
anterior to the accumulation of the diluvial gravel.

_ The calcareous concretions of New Holland have in some
instances a tubular and stem-like appearance ; and have thence
been mistaken for corals, and petrified branches of trees.

142 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [Fes.

On a general view of the north and north-west of New Hol-
land, it will be observed that the outline of the coast, in several
distant quarters, has a direction nearly uniform, from south-west
to north-east ; which is the course also of the remarkable ranges:
of islands on the north-west of the Gulf of Carpentaria. It
appears also that reddish sandstone of ancient date is very abun-
dant throughout the north and west ceasts ; and it is not altoge+
ther improbable that the prevailing direction of the strata may
be that above-mentioned.

So little is known of the remainder of Australia, and espe+
cially of the interior, that speculations upon its general structure
would bepremature ; but the linearity of the coast lines in seve-
ral other places is remarkable ; and their course, as well as that
of the principal openings, has also a general tendency to a direc-
tion from the west of south toward the eastofnorth. The coinci-
dence of uniformity of range with marked features of geological
constitution, is of such frequent occurrence in other parts of the
globe, that these appearances are in the present case deserving
of attention; but they are mentioned by the author, under the
existing scantiness of information from Australia, merely as
suggesting ground for more extensive inquiry.

Nov. 18.—A notice was read, respecting the appearance of
Fossil Timber on the Norfolk coast; by Richard Taylor, Esq.,
of Norwich.

In consequence of an extraordinary high tide which visited
the coast of Norfolk on the 5th of February last, large portions)
of the cliffs, sometimes exceeding 200 feet in height, were pre-:
cipitated into the sea, and an opportunity was afforded of
examining the site of a stratum containing a number of fossil:
trees, exposed on the east and west side of the town of Cromer.
In this singular stratum, composed of laminz of clay, sand, and
vegetable matter, and about tour feet in thickness, the trunks
were found standing as thickly as is usual in woods, the stumps:
being firmly rooted in what appears the soil in which they grew.
They are invariably broken off about a foot and a half from the
base. The stem and branches lie scattered horizontally ; and.
amongst them are thin layers of decomposed leaves, but no
fruits or seed-vessels. The species of timber appear to be
chiefly of the Pine tribe, with occasional specimens of elm and.
oak: they are flattened by the pressure of the overlying alluvial
strata. Mr. Taylor has not observed any animal remains in the
stratum, except a skull of one of the Deer tribe ; but he supposes
that the bones of Elephants and other herbivorous animals, found
near this site, may have been washed out of the same bed.

An extract of a letter fromthe Right Hon. Earl Compton, FGS.
to the President, was read, On the Discovery of Granite
with Green Felspar found in Excavations at Tivoli. In excava-

1826.] Geological Society. 143

tions made during the spring of 1825 at Tivoli, on the spot
where the villa of Manlius Vopiscus stood, fragments of granite
were discovered, the felspar of which is of a green colour,
exactly resembling that which is called Amazonian stone. As
this rock was never before known to be among those employed
by the ancients, it becomes a curious point, observes the author,
to ascertain whence they derived it, since the modern localities
of the Amazonian stone are confined to Siberia and the continent
of America. As Egyptian hieroglyphics appear on the original
surface of some of these fragments, Lord Compton supposes the
green granite to have been found, though as a very rare sub
stance, in Egypt.

A paper was also read, entitled, ‘ Notice of Traces of a Sub-
marine Forest at Charmouth, Dorset ; by H. T. de la Beche, Esq.
FRS. GS. &c.”

A circumstance seeming to indicate the existence of the
remains of a submarine forest near the mouth of the Char, was
lately pointed out to Mr. De la Beche by Miss Mary Anning.
Upon a flat of some extent, stretching into the sea in front of
the beach, only visible at low water, and composed of lias,
patches of a blue clay show themselves, imbedding pieces of
blackened wood lying horizontally, similar in appearance to
those usually met with in submarine forests ; some of them are
large, but the greater number must have been derived from
small trees ; mixed with these are a few hazel nuts, and abun-
dant remains of plants, chiefly such as are found in marshy
grounds. Angular and blackened pieces of chert and flint, pre-
cisely resembling those which occur in the diluvium on either
side of the Char, form the substratum of this clay, which has
been worn away on most places by the rolling of the large
pebbles thrown up by the action of the sea upon the beach.

Dec. 2.—A paper, entitled, “ Remarks on the Geology of
Jamaica; by H. T. De la Beche, Esq. FGS.” was read in part.

A paper was also read, entitled, “An Account of an unde-
seribed Fossil Animal from the Yorkshire Coal-field; by John
Atkinson, FLS, and Edward Sanderson George, FLS.”

Dec. 16.—A. paper was read, “On the Chalk and Sands
beneath it (usually termed Green Sand), in the Vicinity of Lyme
Regis; by H. T. De la Beche, Esq. FGS. &c.”

Mr. De la Beche observes that we ought not to suppose that
the sands, marles, and clays, which are immediately subjacent to
the chalk in the east of England, can be traced into other and
distant countries, where however these sands, &c. as a mass, may
be easily recognized. That this cannot be done, even at com-
paratively short distances, it is the object of this communication
to prove, by examples derived from the cliffs at Lyme Regis, in
Dorsetshire, and Beer, in Devonshire ; detailed sections of which

144 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [Fess

are given, and the succession of the strata, and the organic
remains which they contain fully described. The author first
treats of the chalk, and the sands and sandstone, usually called
green sand, as they occur between Lyme Regis and Axmouth ;
and then notices the same formations as they are exhibited in
the vicinity of Beer. '

From this examination it appears, that though there is a great
correspondence in the organic remains, considerable changes
take place in the mineral composition and characters of the beds
both of chalk and underlying sands, in short distances. Mr.
De la Beche considers it probable that the Beer-stone is the
equivalent of the Malm-rock of Western Sussex.

A paper was also read, entitled, “‘ Geological Sketch of Part
of the West of Sussex, and the NE of Hants, &c.; by R. I.
Murchison, Esq. FGS. &c.”

In this memoir, Mr. Murchison describes the geological rela-
tions, distribution, and characteristic fossils of the strata of that
part of the west of Sussex, which is bounded on the south by
the chalk escarpment of the South Downs; and of that part of
Hampshire which is included by the Alton Chalk Hills. ‘These
strata, commencing below the chalk, ina descending series, are,
1. Malm-rock, or Upper Green Sand; 2. Gault ; 2, Fotshelgans
Green Sand; 4. Weald Clay. The Weald clay in the valley of
Harting Combe, may be regarded as the central nucleus of this
district, mantling round which, and extending up to either
chalk range, the other formations are developed, in regular,
succession : the breadth and boundaries of each are laid down
by the author on a coloured portion of the Ordnance map, to
which a section is annexed.

The malm-rock of Western Sussex is identical with the stone
of Merstham: it is characterized by constituting terraces which
afford a rich soil favourable to wheat. It sometimes furnishes a
building stone, contains occasionally a calcareous blue chert,
and abounds in organic remains.

The gault of this district has been cut through to the depth
of 120 feet, at Alice Holt, and iridescent Ammonites and other
fossils are found in it. This clay is marked by fertile water-
meadows, and the timber presenting a green belt clearly distin-
guishes it from the rich wheat land of the malm rock above, and
the arid expanse of the ferruginous green sand below it.

Of this latter formation, the upper beds consist of pure white
sand, and in some places compact ironstone, and ironstone in
large cellular tubes are found. In the middle beds occurs a calca-
reo-siliceous grit, called Bargate stone; in the lower, a siliceous
yellow building stone, containing casts of Ammonites, Terebra~
tule, &c. The Weald clay includes in its middle beds the
compact Petworth marble, and in lower beds of clay in which

1826.] Scientific Noticés—Chemistry. 145

tabular calcareous grit occurs, Mr. Murchison has discovered,
together with scattered shells of the Vivipara fluviorum, the
bones of a large unknown vertebrated animal, specimens and
drawings of which accompany this memoir.
Jan. 6, 1826.—The reading of Mr. De la Beche’s aor on
the Geology of Jamaica, was continued. E. W. B.

ArTicLE XIII.
SCIENTIFIC NOTICES.

CHEMISTRY.

1. Prof. Berzelius’s Discovery of Lithia in Mineral Waters.

Prof. Berzelius has been occupied with the examination of
several mineral waters from Bohemia, viz. those of the Eger, or
Frauzensbad, and those of Marienbad. These waters were
found to contam the same substances which this chemist
detected in those of Carlsbad, the analysis of which has been
for some time before the public,* but in the new analysis he has
found no lithia. The quantity of the carbonate of the alkali is
very small, particularly in the waters of Carlsbad, and in that of
Eger; but the waters of the spring called Kreuzbrunn, at
Marienbad, contain as much as a centigramme of the carbonate
of lithia in every bottle.

The following is M. Berzelius’s method of discovering this
alkali in any solution. He precipitates the lime by means of
oxalate of potash, and afterwards separates the magnesia by
carbonate of soda; but the mixture must be evaporated to dry-
ness, and the residue fused ; for otherwise some of the magnesia
would be easily redissolved in the form of a double carbonate of
soda and magnesia. The mass taken up by the water and
filtered will not give any further precipitation even when pure
paaepisie of soda is added; but if it contain lithia it will

ecome turbid during the evaporation, which must be continued
till the matter be perfectly dry. It is next redissolved in a very
aall quantity of cold water, which leaves undissolved a double
hosphate of soda and lithia, equivalent to one-third of its
ight of carbonate of lithia. The characters which distinguish
— this popaphate from the earthy phosphates with which it may be
confo

unded, are as follows: It is very fusible before the blow-
pipe. When melted with carbonate of soda, it enters with the
soda into the charcoal. Ona leaf of platina the melted mixture
islimpid. The earthy phosphates remain on the charcoal while

; _ © See Annals of Philosophy, vol. viii. N.S. p. 123.
New Series, vow. xt. L

146. Scientific Notices—Chemistry. [Fes.

the soda pénetrates it, and do not give a limpid mixturé when
they afe melted on a leaf of platina. With twice its weight of
catbonate of lime, it fuses at a red heat, without however
attacking the platina, as lithia ordinarily does; but if some’
drops of water are added to it, and afterwards evaporated, the
platina becomes yellow all round when the mass is heated anew.
—(Edin. Jour. of Science.)

2. Prof. Berzelius’s Experiments on the Orange Gas produced
froma Mixture of Fluor Spar and Chromate of Lead.

As the English and French journals have already given an
account of Prof. Berzelius’s experiments on the different combi-
nations of the fluoric acid which have facilitated the reduction
of silicium, zirconium, and tantalum, we shall not at present
enter on the subject. ‘ + id
_ A German chemist, M. Unverdorben, has published some
experiments on the fluoric acid, the most curious of which was
that in which, after mixing together fluor spar and chromateé of
Jead, he distilled them in a leaden retort, with fuming or anhy-
drous sulphuric acid. From this there resulted a gas, which
could not be collected, because it destroyed the glass: This gas
gave a very thick yellow or red smoke. It was readily absorbed
in water, which was then found to contain a mixture of chromic
and fluoric acids. When it came in contact with air, the gas
deposited small red crystals, which were those of chromic acid.

Prof. Berzelius repeated these experiments of M. Unverdorben,
and he found that the experiment succeeded equally well with
¢ommon concentrated sulphuric acid. He collected the gas in
glass flasks covered with melted resin, and filled with mercury.
‘The gas had a red colour. It gradually attacks the resin, depo
sits chromic acid in its mass; and penetrates even to the glass,
which it decomposes without change of volume, the chrome
being replaced by silicium. Ammoniacal gas introduced into it
burns with explosion. Water dissolves it, and yields an orange
coloured fluid, which, evaporated to dryness in a platina dish,
leaves as a residue pure chromic acid. ‘The fluoric acid volati-
lizes entirely. This method is at present the only one which
gives chromic acid perfectly pure.

' Ifthe gas is received in a platina vessel of some depth, whose
sides have been slightly wetted, and into the bottom of which thé
gas has been made to descend, the water begins to absorb the
gas, but, by and bye, crystals of a fine red colour are seen to
form themselves round the opening of the metallic tube which
conveys the gas, and, in a short time, the vessel is filled with a
red snow, consisting of crystals of chromic acid. The fluori¢
acid dissipates itself in vapour, and absorbs entirely the water
added at the beginning of the experiment. These crystals have
this curious property, that, when they are heated to redness in a.

1996.J Scientifie Notices Mineralogy. 147

platina dish, they begifi at first to melt, and aftefwards, By 4
pod explosion, accompanied by @ flash ef light, they decompose
tliémselvées into oxygen gas, and the greeti protoxide of chrome.
Thé chromic acid which has been dissolved in the water does
not present this phenomenon. It fuses during its de¢omposition,
but it does not give a flash of light. This difference does not
arise from its containing water, for it is perfectly free from it
when it is heated to a little above 100° centigrade.

M. Unverdorben had already observed, that crystals of chro-
mic acid introduced into ammoniacal gas, aré decomiposed with
a flash of light: The ammonia is destroyed, and the acid
leaves the protoxide as aresidue. Itis necessary to make these
experiments quickly, as the crystallized acid is deliquescent.

fn distilling chromate of lead with chloride of sodium, we
obtain a gas similar to the preceding, and which contains chrome
combined with chlorine in such proportions that the water, b
its decomposition, gives rise to the formation of the hydrochlori¢e
and chromic acids. The gas is red, and may be collected over
mercury, but it is very much charged with chlorine, when it is
prepared by means of the common concettrated sulphuric acid,
whose water of combination destroys a certain quantity of gas.
+ (Edin. Jour: of Science.) E

MINERALOGY.
3, Arseniate of Iron.
(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)

| GENTLEMEN, Glasgow, Jan. 9, 1826, —
_ In the January number of the Annals, p. 23, there is inserted
a letter of Prof. Berzelius to M. A. Brogniart, in which that
excellent practical chemist gives the result of his analysis of two
varieties of arseniate of iron, and you express, in a note, somé
doubt about the meaning to be affixed to Beérzelius’s statemént.
The French expression which you transcribe is obviously non=
sense; owing probably to a typographical error in thé periodical
work from which you copied it. Luckily you have given us
Berzelius’s formule, from which the constituents of the mine-
vals, according to his view of the subject, are sufficiently
obvious: Perhaps I may make the nature of these arseniates
obvious to the readers of your work by translating his formula
into English.

], The Villa Ricca specimenis a compound salt composed of

1 atom protarseniate of iron,

2 atoms perarseniate of iron,
12 atoms water.

2. The second species is the cube ore of mineralogists; for
Peed hardly state that the word wurféletz is not the name of #

jh:

148 Scientific Noticeso=Mineralogy.. {Fres.

place, but a German word meaning cube ore. The mineral
occurs in Cornwall, had been analyzed before by Chenevix and
Vauquelin, and has been long known to British mineralogists.
It is also, according to Berzelius, a compound salt, and its con-
stituents are,

1 atom subsesquarseniate of protoxide of iron,
2 atoms subsesquarseniate of peroxide of iron,
18 atoms water.

I do not give the numbers corresponding to these atoms,
because the opinion which Berzelius entertains respecting the
composition of arsenic acid, and which doubtless influenced his
analysis, is not the same as mine. .

I may mention that the mineral called mesola in the notice
which you have inserted in the Annals, is called Mesolin by
Berzelius, in his new mineralogical arrangement printed in the
Memoirs of the Swedish Academy for 1824.

Iam, &c. THoMAS THOMSON.

4. Fall of Aerolites.

On the 15th of January, 1824, between nine and ten o’clock
in the evening, a fall of aerolites happened in the lower part of
the Commune of Renalzo, distant 21 miles from the town of
Cento, in the province of Ferrara. This phenomenon was pre-
ceded by the appearance of a bright light, which terminated in
flashes of lightning. Next were heard, for some miles around,
three loud explosions, like discharges of artillery, which were
immediately followed by a noise similar to the firing of musquetry,
and was distinctly audible as far as the town of Cento. Ina
short time this noise changed to a sound like that of a number
of bells ringing all at once. At last somemstones fell with
violence, accompanied by a whistling noise, and notwithstand-
ng the darkness of the night, the direction of their fall could be
determined, which led to the discovery of the stones themselves.
It is said that three of these aerolites have been found. The
phenomenon lasted about 20 minutes. The stones were found
at an interval of about a mile asunder. Some persons speak of
a black cloud which at first appeared in the south-east, from
whence it took an oblique direction towards a black body, appa-
rently of the size of acommon cauldron, and at length becommg
luminous, presented to the eye and ear the phenomena above
described. Prof. Ranzani possesses one of the aerolites, which
is said to weigh about a pound and a half. They are blackish ;
externally their colour is lighter, and internally they are sprinkled
with brilliant points of the colour of iron, with globules of the
same colour still more brilliant, and with small, whitish, round
corpuscles, with indeterminate facets, and varying in diameter
trom one-sixteenth of.a line to a line. . Further particulars are’

1826.] Scientific Notices—Mineralogy. 149

expected from the Abbe Ranzani, and also the analysis of the
stones by Dr. Santagata.—(Bullet. des Sciences.)

5. Analysts of the Maryland Aérolite. By Mr. George Chilton.
With an additional Notice of its physical Characters, by Prof.
Silliman.

In the Annals for September last, we gave Dr. Carver’s
account of the fall of this stone: we now extract from Silliman’s
Journal the following particulars of its chemical constitution and
physical characters. ‘

Results of Mr. Chilton’s analysis of the Maryland aérolite :
specific gravity 3°66. Twenty-five grains of the unmagnetical
portion contained :

RN tannin Ania, Bsn ciple ain kel SIO
Lime... eeees eeesveeeoe ee eee eeeeen ene 0°45
SEAR AG o nip im ndedinldewewin se WeAID
TERE OF CR a anc, a eminx to nine ae acts OO
Sulphur. .... RAlais Widie AO RIAN aie ghd ais acs Siok
ET oi noha. bi caso mie, ue dia Sin
26°22

The same quantity of the magnetical portion gave,
PMI MOLAEOES tia tin als sno toes oa. eoee 24°00
PSIG OL WICKCL. cs oan wsnc er sconce | Leo
Silica, with other earthy matter...... 3°46
MOONE. can alco nie'e wp baie sitty'ens non, 2e 1taCe
28°71

Prof. Silliman’s Additional Notice of the physical Characters of
the Maryland Aérolite.

As the visits of these extraordinary strangers to our planet
are frequent, and their origin is not yet satisfactorily explained,
it is obviously proper to register carefully all the facts respect-
ing them, that thus we, or those who follow us, may, by and
bye, be in a condition to reason correctly respecting them.

We hastened to lay before our readers the account which we
received of the fall of the Maryland aérolite ; but as no specimen
had then been received, it was not possible to give at that time
either a description or an analysis. Mr. Chilton has supplied

‘the analysis. We add the following notice ofthe appearance of
the stone.

An excellent specimen, for which we are indebted to Dr.
Samuel D. Carver, weighs four pounds five ounces. Its dimen-
sions are seven inches by three and four ; its form is that of an
regular ovoidal protuberance, nearly flat where it was detached

150 Scientific Notices—Mineralogy. ‘[Pes.

from the larger mass, and bounded by irregular curves in the
other parts of the surface. In all parts, except where it has
been Patines: it is coyered by the usual black vitreous coating,
which, in this case, especially when it is viewed by a magnifier,
‘has more lustre than is common. This coating is severed by
innumerable cracks running in every direction, and communi-
cating with each other so as to divide the surface into polygons
resembling honey-comb or madrepore, and no undivided portion
of the surface exceeds half an inch in diameter.
This circumstance is much less apparent upon the aérolites of
Weston (1807), L’Aigle (1503), and Stannern, in Moravia (1808):
it appears to have arisen from the rapid cooling of the external
vitreous crust after intense ignition. It is impossible to doubt
that this crust is a result of great and sudden heat. In the
Maryland aérolite it is not quite so thick as the back of a
common penknife, ard, as in that’of Weston and Stannern, it
is separated bya well defined line, from the mass of the stone
beneath. The mass of the stone is, on the fractured surface, of
a light ash-gray colour, or'perhaps more properly of a grayish-
white ; it is ver'y uniform in its appearance, and not marked by
that strong contrast of dark and light gray spots, which is so
conspicuous in the Weston meteorolite. The fractured surface
of the Maryland stone is uneven and granular, harsh and dry to
the touch, and it seratches window glass decidedly, but not with
great energy. To the naked eye it presents very small glistening
metallic points, and a few minute globular or oyoidal bodies
scattered here and there, through the mass of the stone. With
a magnifier all these appearances are of course much increased.
The adhesion of the small parts of the stone is so feeble that it
falls to pieces with a slight blow, and exhibits an appearance
almost like grains of sand. The metallic parts are conspicuous,
but they are much less numerous than the earthy portions, which,
when separated, are nearly white, and have a pretty high vitre-
ous lustre, considerably resembling porcelain. They appear as if
they had undergone an incipient vitrification, and as if they had
been feebly agglutinated by a very intense heat. I cannot say
that I observed in them, as M. Fleurian de Bellevue did in the
aerolite of Jonzac (Jour. de Phys. tom. xcii. p. 136), appearances
-of erystallization, although it is possible there may have been
an incipient process of that kind, especially as the small parts
-are translucent.* The Maryland stone is highly magnetic ;
pieces as large as peas are readily lifted by the magnet, and
that instrument takes up a large portion of the smaller fragments.

* This vitreous appearance, I believe, has not been observed before (at least as far as
appears in any account that I have seen), It seems to have resulted from intense heat ;
the same doubtless which covered the exterior with the black crust, and the difference of
the two is probably to be ascribed to the one being covered and compressed, and to the
other being onthe outside, Drei , ihe erkas

1826.) ~ Scientific Notices—Geology. 151

_The iron is metallic, and perfectly malleable ; although none of
the pieces are larger than a pin’s head, still they are readily
extended by the hammer. The iron in the crust is glazed over,
so that the eye does not perceive its metallic character, but the
file instantly brightens the innumerable points, which then
break through the varnish of the crust, and give it a brilliant
metallic lustre at all the points where the file has uncovered the
iron. The same is the fact with the Weston stone, and with
that of L’Aigle, but not with that of Stannern, in Moravia ;
specimens of all of which, and of the meteoric iron of Pallas, of
Louisiana, and of Auvergne, are now before me. The aérolites
of Jonzac and of Stannern, as stated by M. Bellevue, are the
only ones hitherto discovered that do not contain native iron,
and do not affect the magnet; still their analysis presents a
good deal of iron, which is probably in the condition of oxide.

The iron in the metallic state is very conspicuous in the
Weston stone, sometimes in pieces of two inches in length ; and
both in this stone and in that of Maryland, it is often brilliant
like the fracture of the meteoric iron of Pallas and of Louisiana.

In the analysis of the Weston stone published in 1808, I did
not discover chrome, although it was afterwards announced by
Mr. Warden. I hayedesired Mr, Chilton to reanalyse the Weston
stone, and he has nearly completed the labour, the result of
which may be given hereafter; but he writes that he has not
been able to discover any chrome. I am not quite sure that I
discover Besse in the Maryland aérolite, although it is men-
tioned by Dr. Carver in his letter.

GroLoey.
6. Geological Survey of the Shores of the Severn.

The Rev. C. P. N. Wilton, FCPS. &c. has lately been
engaged in making a geological survey of the shores of the
Severn, in that part of its course which passes through the
parish of Aure, in Gloucestershire, to an extent of about seven
miles. In this examination several interesting discoveries were
patie, of which detailed accounts will shortly be laid before the

ublic,
2 In one place, a stratum was found of a sort of carbonized
wood, much resembling Bovey coal, in which occurred, disse-
‘minated in small pieces, a white substance not hitherto met with
in that matrix, and which, upon examination by Mr. Brand, was
found to be sulphate of barytes.

A fossil species of alcyonium was met with in blue lias—a
circumstance regarded as extremely curious, when mentioned to
that zealous naturalist Mr. Miller, of Bristol, (Author of the
Nat. Hist. of the Crinoidea, &e.) With this were found immense
specimens of cornu ammonis, &c.

Near the same spot a great number of bones were met with in

152 Scientific. Notices— Miscellaneous. {Fes.

diluvial gravel; a large fragment of a gigantic stag’s horn ;
seven fragments of immense jaw bones; and teeth in great
quantities.

At no great distance some remains of antiquity were disco-
yered : a sort of burying-place has been distinctly traced out:
wood ashes, iron nails, and rude implements, with portions of
red and black pottery, were dug up; and at about two miles
distance, fragments of the same pottery were found mixed with
a quantity of iron slag.

n another spot on the banks of the Severn, in a bed of clay
nine feet below the surface, was dug upa sort of iron shovel,
much corroded, accompanied by fragments of red pottery, and
wood in a state resembling coal.—(Journal of Science.)

MIiscELLANEOUS.
7. The Pantochronometer.

An instrument has lately been presented to the public, under
this name, by Messrs. C. Essex and Co. which we think calcu-
lated to be of so much utility in familiarizing the minds of
young people with several important points in astronomy, that
at a period when every effort is making to render scientific know-
ledge universally attainable, we think it worthy of particular
notice in the Annals. The annexed figure will give a correct
idea of its appearance in one of the various forms in which it is
constructed,

1826.] ‘Scientific Notices— Miscellaneous. 153

It consists essentially of the following parts : a Sun-dial, which
being affixed to a magnetic needle suspended in the usual way,
in such a manner as to allow for the effect of the variation,
adjusts itself in every position of the instrument, and the divi-
sions of the hours and their fractions on which are carried on to
an additional exterior circle correspondently divided; and a
Fixed Circle, around the dial, on which are inscribed the names
of a number of places in every quarter of the world. By this
arrangement, the shadow of the gnomon, whilst it gives the
time at the place of observation, also gives it for any other place
required ; and a series of tables contained in an explanatory work
accompanying the instrument, extends its application to most
places of consequence on the globe. A rule is also given for
determining the longitude in degrees from the time.

We like the plan of constructing introductory pieces of appa-
ratus like this, as they tend to habituate those who use them to
instrumental observation; and we are convinced it may be much
and usefully extended. Whilst thus expressing our approbation
of such means of teaching the principles of science, we wish to
impress the minds of those persons who may bring them forward
with the necessity of taking up the subjects to be taught in their
most accurate form,—with every modern correction. Popular
science in this country is for the most part antiquated, and much
below the standard of the present day ; and this has arisen from
the erroneous and mischievous idea that it is unnecessary, for
such purposes, to notice the modern refinements, and sufficient
to give the “broad outline,” as it is called :—but they who think
so, forget that the minute investigations of the present
century have, in many cases, materially altered the form of that
outline. We do not observe, however, any neglect of this kind
in the construction of the Pantochronometer; and indeed its
adjustment for the variation of the needle is an instance of the
attention we recommend.

8. French Voyage of Discovery.

The Paris Academy of Sciences, in its sittings on Monday,
received a letter from the Minister of the Marine, announcing
that the corvette L’Astrolabe, Capt. Dumont de Durville, was
about to sail on a voyage of discovery, and requesting the
Academy to appoint a Commission to prepare such instructions
as might be judged expedient. The object of the expedition is
to explore certain parts of the globe, which are not sufficiently
well known, and particularly the coasts of New Guinea, and
those of New Zealand., A Commission, consisting of Messrs.
Cuvier, Arago, Delaplace, Desfontaines, Dulong, and Aubrone
de Rossel, was appointed in consequence.—Galignani’s Mes-
senger. ae

154 Scientific Notices—Miscellaneous. {Fsx.

9. Abstract of Capt. Kater’s Account of the Construction and

Adjustment of the new Standard of Weights and Measures of
. the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, lately read
_ before the Royal Society. )

_ The author, after stating that the weights and measures of
the United Kingdom are founded on a standard, whose length
is determined by its proportion to that of a pendulum vibra-
ting mean time in London, which has been ascertained by
him to be 39°13929 inches of Sir George Shuckburgh’s scale,
deems it necessary, on account of the importance of the result,
to consider what degree of confidence itisentitled to, For this

urpose it is necessary to compare this final result with those
obtained in other experiments and by different methods. Now
it appears that previously to the experiments detailed in the
author’s paper on the subject in the Phil, Trans, for 1818, on
which this result rests, another series is there mentioned, made
with the same instruments, but under circumstances which
occasioned their rejection, and which owing to some repairs
in the instruments between the two series, which occasioned a
material alteration in the distance between the knife edges,
have all the weight of experiments made with a different pen-
dulum. The result of these rejected experiments, however,
differed only two ten-thousandths of an inch from that_ulti-
mately adopted,

The author next compares the lengths of the seconds pen-
dulum at Unst and at Leith Fort, as ascertained by him with an
invariable pendulum, whose vibrations had previously been
determined in London, and whose length was thus known in
terms of the London seconds pendulum, and as ascertained by
M. Biot at the same stations by means of a variety of pen-
dulums, and by a totally different method of observation—that
of Borda. The results of this comparison are, a difference be-
tween the determinations of Mons. B.and of the author, of 0:00029
inch in excess at the former station, and 0-00015 in defect at
the latter. ;

From this near agreement of all the results, he considers that
the length of the seconds pendulum in London may be regarded
as certainly known to within one ten-thousandth of an inch ;
while from the near agreement of the results of the French
and English experiments on the length of the pendulum, he
concludes that the length of the metre in parts of Sir G.
Schuckburgh’s scale may also be regarded as known within
one ten-thousandth of an inch.

- From an account recently published by Captain Sabine of his
yaluable experiments for the determination of the variations in
length of the seconds pendulum, Capt. K. observes, doubts may be
inferred of the accuracy of the method employed by him for the

7826.) Scientific Notices—Miscellaneous. 355

-obseryations for determining the length of . the: seeonds
pendulum in London, as well as in those which have been
made with the invariable pendulum. It is asserted there, that
taking a mean between the disappearances and re-appearances
of the disk is a more correct method of observation than that
pursued by Captain Kater, and that the intervals between the
coincidences obtained, by observing the disappearances only, of
‘the disk, would be productive of error.
_ In answer to this objection, the author remarks, Ist, That with
espect to the convertible pendulum, or that used for deter-
“mining the absolute length of the seconds pendulum, the disk
was made to subtend precisely the same angle as the tail-piece
of the pendulum, so that at the moment of disappearance, its
centre necessarily coincided precisely with the middle of the
tail-piece, and the difference between the moments of disap-
pearance and re-appearance is rigorously nothing; an adjust-
‘ment indispensable in his method of observing, when the object
-ig to determine the ¢rue number of vibrations in 24 hours,

Qdly. With the invariable pendulum the disk subtended a
somewhat less angle than the tail-piece, so that the inferred
-number of vibrations in 24 hours was diminished about two-
tenths of a second. But experiments with the invariable
‘pendulum being intended to be in the strictest sense of the
-word comparative, this constant difference will no way affect
the ultimate result. But, as the most direct way to remove any
doubts which may be entertained on the subject, the author has
_ computed from the whole of Captain Sabine’s observations, the
successive differences in the vibrations at the various stations
-yisited by him, by the two methods; viz. that of employing the
disappearances and re-appearances, and the disappearances
alone, The results only in one instance differ so much as a
tenth of a vibration, they are indifferently in excess and in defect,
and the mean of their discrepancies is exactly nothing. From
‘this he concludes that if the observations be made as nearly as

essible under similar circumstances, the method of observing
by disappearances alone, is productive of no perceptible error
in practice, in experiments with the invariable pendulum; while
in those with the convertible pendulum, the equal apparent sizes
ef the disk and tail-piece, preclude the possibility of any, either
in practice or theory, from this cause.
he standard of Sir G. Shuckburgh having been found iden-
tical with that by Bird, in the custody of the Clerk of the House
ef Commons, adopted as the imperial standard unit of exten-
sion, the length of the pendulum already determined is fixed
vd the same degree of precision in parts of the imperial stand-
ard yard, |
_ A repetition of Sir G, Shuckburgh’s experiments on the
weight of given volumes of distilled water, and a re-measure-

156 Scientific Notices Miscellaneous. [Frez.
‘ment of the cube, sphere, and cylinder used by him, were
found to give no material variation from his results, these being
stated in terms of the mean of several standard weights kept at
the Houseof Commons. The troy pound nearest the mean has
been adopted, and declared by the legislature to be the
original unit of weight under the denomination of the imperial
standard troy pound.

The relation between this pound and the cubic inch of distilled
‘water at 62° Fahr., bar. 30 in., has been ascertained by the

“Commissioners of Weights and Measures, who find that the
latter contains 252.458 gr., each grain being the 5760th part of
the standard troy pound.

The avoirdupois pound is fixed by assigning its proportion
to the standard troy pound, so as to contain exactly 7000 such

ains.
The imperial standard gallon is defined by stating its contents
‘under the same circumstances of temperature and pressure, at
10 lbs. avoirdupois of distilled water, and the bushel by its
containing 80 such pounds.

‘The author, having in compliance with a request of the Lords
~Commissioners of His Majesty’s Treasury, undertaken to super-
intend the construction of, and to adjust, the principal standards
to be deposited at the Exchequer, Guildhall, Dublin, and
Edinburgh ; Mr. Dollond was directed to prepare those of linear
measure, and Mr. Bate those of weight and measure of capacity,
the proper quality of metal for the latter purpose being deter-
‘mined by experiments instituted for the purpose. The expe-
‘riments for adjusting them are then given in full detail. The
troy pounds were first adjusted, and the exactness with which
this operation has been performed may be appreciated from
this, that the final errors of none of them exceeded 22 ten-
thousandths of a grain. When brought so near, it was of
course not thought necessary to attempt further correction.

The avoirdupois pounds and the weights of the gallon of
water were then derived from the troy pounds, and finally ad-
justed, like them, by inclosing within the weight in hollows left
for the purpose, wires equal to the errors ascertained to exist in
them. The weights of these wires in each case is stated, so
that should they by any accident be taken out and lost, they
may be restored.

He next describes the method used in adjusting the gallon
itself, the method of filling it exactly, and of weighing it when
‘filled, together with the corrections depending on the circum-
stances of temperature and pressure under which the experi-
ments were made. As a final result, it appears that one only of
the gallons was ultimately found in error to a greater extent than
six-tenths of a grain, the others having their errors less than a
fourth of that quantity. pd ' si

1826.] New Scientifie Books. 157°

The quarts and pints being next disposed of, the author de-
scribes the balance contrived by him for weighing the bushels,
which proved so delicate’ as to turn with a single grain when
loaded with 250 Ibs. in each scale. The resulting bushels when
finally adjusted, were found to have all their apparent errors less
than 6°56 grains of water; while the corrections for temperature
and pressure only, amounted in some cases to no less than 138
grains ; but this depending on the figure of the glass used to
cover them, it is not to be understood that the contents of the
vessels have actually been ascertained to this degree of precision.

The adjustment of the standard yards is next described; and.
the author concludes his paper by a summary of the results
arrived at in the present inquiry respecting British weights and
measures. The length (he remarks) of the pendulum vibrating
seconds in London has heen found in parts of the imperial’
standard yard, so that the value of the yard may at any time be
known, having been referred to a natural standard presumed
unalterable. The length of the French metre, a standard exe.

ressing a certain portion of the terrestrial meridian, has also
flees given in parts of the English scale. The weight ofa cubic:
inch of distilled water has been determined in parts of the impe-
rial troy pound, and thus the pound, if lost, may at any future
age be recovered. ‘The avoirdupois pound is now for the first
time defined, and the measures of capacity are made to depend
on the weight of water they contain; the imperial gallon, con-
taining ten pounds avoirdupois of water, having been declared
to be the unit, or only standard measure of capacity from which
all others are to be derived. This, it is to be presumed, will’
tend to produce uniformity throughout the United Kingdom, by
putting it in the power of every individual possessed of standard
weights, to verify his measures of capacity with the utmost:
facility. —(Journal of Science.)

ARTICLE XIV.
NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.

JUST PUBLISHED.

A Critical Inquiry into the Ancient and Modern Method of curing
Diseases in the Urethra and Bladder, &c. By Jesse Foot. Eighth
Edition. 6s.

- Practical Observations on Distortions of the Spine, Chest, and
Limbs; by W. Tilleard Ward, FLS. &c. 8vo. 7s.

Beaupré’s Treatise on the Effects and Properties of Cold, with a
Sketch, Historical and Medical, of the Russian Campaign; translated
by J.Glendenning. 8vo. 10s. 6d.

Tiedeman’s Anatomy ofthe Brain. 8vo. 12s.

Kirby and Spence's Entomology. Vols.3 and 4. 21. 2s.

Hall's Medical Essays. 8vo. 4s.

Mr. Davies’s New Tables of Life Contingencies, 8vo. 10s. 6d.

a © New Patents, (Fis!

Article XV.

‘ NEW PATENTS.

-F, Halliday, Ham, Surrey, for improvements in machinery to bé
operated upon by steam.—Dec. 9. .

J.C. Dyer, Manchester, patent card manufacturer, for improves
ments in machinery for making wire cards for carding wool, cotton,
tow, &c.; and also certain improvements on a machine for shaving and
preparing leather used in making such cards.—Dee. 9. é

R, Addams, Theresa Terrace, Hammersmith, for a method of pro-
pelling carriages on turnpike, rail, or other roads.—Dec. 14. aad

’ M. Ferris, Longford, Middlesex, calico printer, for improvements on
pressés ot machinery for printing cotton and other fabrics.—Dec. 14.

J. A. Tabor, Jewin-street, Cripplegate, for means for indicating the’
depth of water in ships and vessels.—Dec. 14.

J. M'Curdy, Cecil-street, Strand, for improvements in generating.

stéam.— Dee: 27: :,
oJ. Ogston and J. T. Bell, Davies-street, Berkeley-square, wateh-=
makers, for improvements in the construction or manufacture of
watches of different descriptions.—Jan. 6, 1826.
_R. Evans, Bread-street, coffee merchant, for improvements in the.
apparatus for, and process of, distillation.—Jan: 7.

i. Houldsworth, the younger, Manchester, cotton-spinner, for im-
provements in machinery, for giving the taking-up or winding-on
motion to spools or bobbins, and tubes or other instruments on which
the roving or thread is roving, spinning, and twisting machinés.—
Jan. 16.

-B. Newmatch, Cheltenham, for an improved method of exploding
firé-arms.—Jan. 16.

J. Rothwell, Manchester, tape manufacturer, for his improved heald
or harness for weaving purposes.—Jan. 16.

H. A. Koymans, Warnford-court, Throgmorton-street, merchant,
for improvements in the construction and use of apparatus and works
for inland navigation:—Jan. 16.

J. F. Smith, Dunston Hall, Chesterfield, for an improvement in the
process of drawing, roving, spinning, and doubling wool cotton, and
other fibrous substances.—Jan. 19.

W. Whitfield, Birmingham, for improvements in making or manu-
facturing of handles for saucepans, kettles, and other culinary vessels,
and also tea-kettle handle straps, and other articles.—Jan. 19.

B. Cook, Birmingham, brass founder, for improvements in making
or constructing hinges of various descriptions.—Jan. 19.

A. R. Leorent, Gottenburgh, merchant, now of King-street, Cheap-
side, for a method of applying steam without pressure to pans, boilers,
coppers, stills, pipes, and machinery, in order to produce, transmit,
and regulate various temperatures of heat in the several processes of
boiling, distilling, evaporating, inspissating, drying, and warming, and.
also to produce power.—Jan. 19.

Sir R. Seppings, Knt. Somerset House, for an improved construction
of such masts and bowsprits as aré genéfally known by thé name of
madé mats and tiade-bowsprits.—Jan. 19.

1896.].° Mp. Howard’s Meteorological Journal.

ARTICLE XVI.

METEOROLOGICAL TABLE.

ei

' 1825, | Wind.

12th Mon.
Dec. 1) E

eeeet.

ie)

2
3
4
5
6
‘i
8
9

24224 7% 2ZA%SA

Z
bE e

14; S$

Z
gdddade

SS ee ee

BAROMETER,
Max. Min.
29°80 29°17
29°36 29:17
29:38 29°36
29°55 29°38
29°58 29°55
29°58 29°42
29°56 29°42
29°60 29°56
29°82 29°60
29:96 29.82
30°02 29:96
30°02 29°98
29°98 20°55
29-76 29:48
29°89 29:76
29°96 29°89
29°89 29°85
20°85 29°57
29°62 29°57
29:62 29°61
29°72 20°61
30°04 29°72
30°20 30°04
30°21 29°93
30°10 29'93
30°10 30°02
30°02 29°88
29°88 29°82
29°82 29°80
29:90 29°80
29°95 29°90
30°21 29:17

THERMOMETER,

Max. | Min.
42 | 26
“46 | 40
45 | 87
39 | 27
48 | 35
50 | 35
52 | 36
43 | 42
45 | 42
‘46 | 42
45 | 35
42 | 36
52 |. 40
46 37
56 | 40
58 | 50
58 | 46
57 | 50
53 | 42.
52 | 48
53 | 50
54 | 50
50 | 40
55 | 42
56 | 43
42 | 25
30 28
40 | 32
36 | 33
38 | 28
38 | 27
58 | 25

159

Evap. | Rain

Dp

SELUTTELEEPLEERIEEFILEELTIEUS EI

270

"The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours,
beginning at 9 A. M. on the day indicated in the first column. A dash denotes that
the result is included in the next following observation.

160 Mr. Howards Meteorological Journal. (Fes. 1826.

REMARKS.

Twelftk Month.—1, Fine. 2. Morning rainy: afternoon fine. 3. Fine. 4. Rainy.
5. Very wet morning and evening. 6—8. Fine. 9,10. Cloudy. 11, 12. Mornings
foggy. 13. Fine. 14. Rainy. 15. Fine. 16. Fine: night rainy. 17. Drizzly.
18. Fine. 19. Rainy morning. 20. Fine. 21. Cloudy. 22. Gloomy. 23. Gloomy:
yainat night. 24. Fine. 25. Morning gloomy: drizzly: afternoon fine. 26. Rainy
evening. 27. Fine: clear and frosty. 28. Ground covered with snow this morning:
gloomy. 29. Overcast. 30, Gloomy. 31. Fine.

RESULTS.

Winds: NE,2; E,3; SE,3; S,2; SW, 6; W,4; NW, Il.
- Barometer: Mean height
For the month. COR Come ee reese eeeeereseresesese 29°55 inches,
Thermometer: Mean height
For Cie mdnth, os. Se ae Fe i dc ces ceuoasveveuy 43°016°

‘Evaporation COMPOSE SETAE EE EH ES ESOS SHEETS EHS ESTESEE SHEET OSH SES 0-91 in.

Rain. SPOS EE OS SETAH SHEE ROSE SS OH TS SESS FHSS SEE ee EEE EEE REFS SEES 2°70

Laboratory, Stratford, First Month, 21, 1826... R. HOWARD.

ANNALS

OF

PHILOSOPHY.
MARCH, 1826.

ARTICLE I.

On the Going of a Clock with a Wooden Pendulum.
| By Col. Beaufoy, FRS.

(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)

GENTLEMEN, Bushey Heath, Stanmore, Feb. 2, 1826.

In the Annals of Philosophy for March, 1820, and June,
1822, were published the description and going of a clock with
an unvarnished pendulum of deal; the regularity of time kept
with this kind of wood induced me to try the effect of a rod
made of wood of greater density ; for this purpose a very clear,
dry, and straight-grained piece of teak was selected, and the
annexed table contains the result of eighteen months’ observa-
tions. By comparing this table with the former, it appears
that a pendulum with a rod of heavy wood is, in point of accu-
racy, inferior to one made of light, the greatest daily variation
of the clock with the latter being from minus 2°74” to plus 1-48”,
sum 4°52”; with the teak from minus 2°52” to plus 9°5”, sum
12-02”; whether the exactness of the time be in proportion to
the lightness of the wood will be the subject of future experi-
ments.

I remain, Gentlemen, yours, very truly,
Marx Beavroy

New Series, vou, X1. M

162 On the Going of a Clock witha Wooden Pendulum. [Marcn,

Table containing the Going of a Clock with a Teak Pendulum.

Clock fast or) pig Daily Clock fast or pir, | Daily

slow. rate. slow. rate,

1824. 1824
April 1) +0’ 01:40” Nov. 3} +0’ 04:53”) 4:15’) —1:05”
7| +0 03:00 | 1-60”) +0:27” 6} +0 03-43 | 1:10 | —0°37
10} +0 03:90 | 0:90 | +0:30 15}—O 05:92 | 9°35 | —1-04
27] +0 16:00 }12°10 |+0-71 21}—0 16°20 |10°28 | —1-71
291 +0 17:43 | 1:43 | +0°71 24/—0O 19°72 | 3°52 |—1-17
May 1} +0 18:36 | 0:93 | +0:46 291|-0 24:13 | 441 |—0°88
6) +0 23°15] 4°79 | +0:96 Dec. 1]}—O 26°82 | 2°70 |—1:35
10} +0 24:07 | 092 |+0-23 3}—0O 28-ST | 2:05 |—1-02
19} +0 34:75 |10°68 | +1-18 8|}—O 33:41 | 4°54 |—0-91
21\+0 37:06} 2°31 | +1:16 10}=—0 35:80 | 2°39 |—1-30
26] +0 43:18 | 6:12 |+1-22 12}—0 38:13 |} 2:33 |—1-16
31) +0 45°21 | 2:03 | +0-41 16} —O 48-20 |10:07 | —2:52
June 1] +0 45°51 | 0:30 | +0°31 20|)—0 56:54 | 8-34 |—2-08
41+0 47:55 | 2-00 |+0-67 26|—1 06-86 | 10-32 |—1]-72
7| +0 49-65 | 2:10 |+0-70 29|—1 07-68 | 0:82 |—0-98

9} +0 49°75 | 0:10 |+0°05
12}+0 51°16 | 1:41 | +0:47 1825.
18} +0 59°88 | 8°72 }+1-45 Jan. 1}—1 08°53 | 0°85 | —0-28

221 +1 02°75 | 2:87 | +072 6}—1 09-60} 1:07 |—0-21
28] +1 06:00 | 3:25 | 40-55 8}]—1 08:14 | 1:46 |+0-73
July 2} +1 05:73 | 0-27 |=0-07 13}=1. 04-28 | 3:26 | +065
Al +1 03-89 | 1°84 |—0-92 17/—O 59:56 | 5:32 | +1-33
9} +0 58:04 | 5°85 |—1-17 19}—0 56°56 | 3:00 | +150
13] +0 57-94 | 0-10 |—0-02 26)—O 46:25 |10°31 | +1-47
17| +0 53-43 | 4:51 |—1-13 29/—0 38:95 | .7:30 | +2-43
19} +0 51°60 | 1-83 |—0:92 Feb. 2}—0 34:30 | 4:65 | +1-16
211+0 50:97 | 0:63 |—0-32 4}—0O 30:89 | 3:41 14170
23),40° 5131 | 034 | +0-17 8}—0 2310 | 7:79 | +195
27) +0 52°77 | 1-46 | +0:37 12}—0 17°04 | 6-16 | +1-54
Aug. 3] +0 53-40 | 0°67 | +009 211}—0 03°85 |13°19 | +1-46
9] +1 09-44 |16-04 | +2°67 || March 4] +0 18°68 |22+53 | + 1-88
4171 +1 04-91 | 4:53 | =—0-57 8}+0 27-65 | $97 | +224
21] +1 O5:15 | 0-24 | +0°06 12}+0 33:44} 5-79 | +1-45
24/41 04:16 | 0-99 | —0°33 14} +0 35:31 | 1:87 | +0-94
27) +1 07:35 | 3:19 | +106 18}+0 42:99 | 7-68 | +1-92
Sept. 1] +0 54-00 |13-35 | —2-67 21/+0 48-76 | 577 | +1-92
6] +0 50:28 | 3°72 |—0:76 24/40 54-61 | 5:85 | +1-95
9} +0 51°65 | 1-37 | +046 31} 41 11-83 |17°22 | + 2-46
18) +0 53:13 | 148 | 40-37 || April 2) 41 18-34 | 651 |+3°25
16} +0 50°60 | 2:58 | =0°84 441 23:38 | 5:04 | 42-52
18} +0 48:33 | 2-27 | —-1:13 8} +1 37:30 |13-62 | +3-40
292140 42:53 | 5:80 |—1°45 12}+1 52-47 |15'47 | +3:S7
25|+0 38-24 | 4-29 |—1-43 18] 42 21-63 }29°16 |+4:86 —
28]}+0 3642} 1:82 |—0-6L 211 +2 38-24 |16-61 | +554
Oct. 4) +0 32°58 | 3°84 | —0°64 28]}+3 14-26 |36-02 |+515
9} +0 2688 | 5:70 |—1°14 30} +3 23:08 | 8-82 | +4:41
14} 40 22°87 | 4951 |—0-90 || May 2} +3 31-60 | 8-52 | + 4-26
18} +0 21°80 | 0-57 |—0-14 Al +3 39:46 | 7°86 | +3:93
24/+0 14:76 | 7:04 |—1-17 7| 4-3 49:26 | 9°80 |+3-27
30] +0 08-68 | 6:08 |—1-01 10] +3 58:27 | 9:01 | +3-00

1826.) Mr. Moyle’s Meteorological Table for 1825.

A’ 11-67"\13:40”
4 22:53 |10°86
4 40-43 |17-90
A 51:15 |10°72
5 03-94 {12°79
5 14-72 {10°78
5 44-46 [29°74
§ 12°50 28:04
6 26°85 {14°35
6 38:63 |11-78
6 56:94 |18:31
7 09°49 {12°55
7 40:99 {31-50
4 53:43 |19°44
8 08:67 |15°24
8 35:81 [27-14
8 A813 |12°32
8 55°72 | 7:59
9 03°79 | 8-07
9 19°76 |15-°97
9 43°90 \24-14
25/+10 O1°82 {17:92
27/410 20°57 {18°75
30/410 46:85 |26-28
Stopt the clock.

Daily
rate
1825,

4+3°35"| Aug. |
+ 3°62 6
+ 3:98 14
+3°57 20
+ 4°26 23
+ 5°39 26
44:25 30
43°12 || Sept. J
+478 3
+ 5°89 7
+6:10 12
+ 6°27 20
+ 6°26 26
+ 6°22 29
+ 5°08 Oct. 1
+ 5°43 8
+411 12
+3°19 16
+403 21
+ 5°32 27
+ 8°05 31
+ 8:97 Noy. 6
+9°3T 12
+ 8°76 19

23

163

Clock fast or! pg | Daily
slow.

16-97"
04-50
15°70
56°19
13-00
27-40
45-05
52-54
58°50
16°63
39°32
O215
10°00
13°50
17-94
25:25
27-83
30°51
39°46
52°60
59-23
10-21
25-89
44:97
53-46

Articte II.

rate.

47°53"| +9°50

71-20
40-49
16°81
14-40
17-65
7-49
5:96
18-13
22-69
22°83
7-85
3:50
A-44
Tal
2-58
2°68
8°95
13°14
6°63
10-98
15°68
19°08
8-49

+ 8°90
+6°75
+5°60
+480
+491
+3°75
+2:98
+4°56
+454
+2°83
+131
ait Co Uy §
+222
+104
+0°64
+ 0°67
+179
+2°19
+ 1°66
+ 1°83
+2°65
+2°73
+212

Results of various Meteorological Registers for the Year 1825.
1. For Helston, in Cornwall. By M. P. Moyle, Esq.
(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)

GENTLEMEN,

this part of the country.

,

M2

I am, Gentlemen, your obedient se

Helston, Jan. 2, 1826.

In transmitting you my Meteorological Journal for the past
year, I beg to remark that it differs only from my former method
of observation in having a b/ack bulb thermometer placed in the
direct rays of the sun; its bulb hasaslight coat of black paint,
into which is stuck a quantity of finely chopped black wool, and
itis mounted on a box-wood scale,a foot above the slated roof of
ahouse. Itmay be useful in ascertaining the solar radiation of

rvant,

M.P. Moxte.

Mr. Moyle’s Meteorological Table for 1825. [MaArcn,

164

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1826.] Meteorological Register kept at Kinfauns Castle. 165

2. Meteorological Table. Lxtracted from the Register kept at
Kinfauns Castle, N. Britain. at. 56° 23’ 30”. Above
the Level of the Sea 140 feet.

eS EE as

Morning, 10 o’clock.|Even., 10 o’clock.| Mean Depth |No. of days.
emp. | of

1825, Mean height of Mean height of by | Rain, | Rain
Six’s ~| or |Fair.
Barom. Ther. Barom. | Ther. | Ther. | Inches.|Snow.

29°96) 39°387 29°936 | 39:935/40'355| 1°45 9 | 22
29:912 | 39:928 29°893 | 39-250|40-071 | 0°95 9} 19
29:992 | 41-742 29:978 | 40°161/41°709 | 1-20 10 ; 21
29°854 | 47:300 29-835 | 43-600/46:700 | 2°40 9 | 21
29°873 51°322 29-897 | 47-097|50:096 | 2-60 13 | 18
29°785 | 57°566 29°764 | 53:000|/56:500| 2°50 9 } 21
30°010 | 63-097 30:020 | 58-129|/62:032| 0°30 5 | 26
29°733 61°322 29-725 | 57:485|60°838| 2-00 9 | 22
29:715 | 58:600 29-701 | 54°866|57-600 | 2°35 16 | 14
29°67S | 51-322 29-671 | 48:903/51-161} 2°15 4 | 17
29°451 41-400 29°417 | 39-833|41-066| 2-80 9 | 21
29°412 | 40°677 29°437 | 40-484/40°451| 3-20 17} 14

SAM si sloa> sn Se
Feb. ci. see ae
Marchi <.-.'-
Anpril.......-
May .....---
June... 22-2
July .......
Aug. .....---
Sept........-
ICT, che croveene
INIOVs <jeisie- o%:-

Means...-.-- 29-781 A49*742 29-773 | 46°895|49-048| 23-90 | 129 |236
ANNUAL RESULTS.
MORNING.
BAROMETER. ‘THERMOMETER,
Observations. Wind. Wind.
Highest, Jan. 9 .... ee SP TUREEG «2, anignicsina vo nent SW ange CIO
Lowest, Jan.18.... E EAS LOR GOH Dec. OU. cowdreareices see |W! nese) eOe
EVENING.
Highest, Jan. 9 ...-.- SW re <1 30°75 | July 30 foe ee eno POE! ceed OOM
Lowest, Nov.5...... SE esece 28°64 | Dec, 31 0.2... -2 sees Wfaer;. | 26°
Weather. Days. Wind. Times
MGI Gecis ah cass co'ciacaeces sleep eno Nand NB tt .c. 2. =. Ae state 9
Rain or snoW ..e.eeseeeeeeeee 129 Pxand-SiBriderese ce -) wanna AD
— Sand S W...-.....ce---0- enews
365 W and N W .....00 cn cineee .. 142
365
Extreme Cold and Heat, by Six’s Thermometer.
Coldest, Dec. 31, Wind W... seseseeeeercesrecceecceees ais
Hottest, July 18, Wind W « ...seeeee cereeceeveeeeeeens 80°
Mean temperature for 1825... ..+eeereeeeeeseeeereeeercnes 49-048
Result of two Rain Gauges. Inches,

Centre of Kinfauns Garden, about 20 feet above the level OF CHE BOR oc cccsveaces GOOD
On the Square Tower of Kinfauns Castle, 140 feet above sea level .-.eeer+ssee 23°45

cal Journal for 1825. [Marcu,

oa

7

Mr. Stockton’s Meteorolo

166

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1826,} Mr. Stockton’s Meteorological Journal for 1825, 167

ANNUAL RESULTS.

Barometer.

Inches,
Highest observation, Jan. 9, Wind N ...eeesgeeeees 30°800
Lowest observation, Noy. 3, Wind NW. .....eeseee2 28°550
Range of the mercury . ..ceeeseresecseveesecncens 2°250
Mean annual barometrical pressure ..+-.+++- seevece 29878
Spaces described by the different oscillations........ 64:040
Total number of changes in the year....sseeeseveree 156°000

}

Six’s Thermometer.

Highest observation, July 18, Wind N...eseseereeee 88:000°
Lowest observation, Dec. 31, Wind N.......+-++e-- 18°000
Range of the mercury in the thermometer. ....-.++++ 70°000
Mean annual temperature ..esscessesneecececerees 40171

Winds,

North. ecescoereoeceoseaneseeevneeseeveeeeeeeseseoeeees 67
Moreeasts eee. PSION PP Pi. Poe «eae
East eeeeee sees eeetoaoevoeee eee eeeenvceseoe CR eeeevreee 14
Ba-CARE! POSED, od el OF eee chces Hwatld
South. eeeeseee eee ee esses ee se Steere seseeseseee® A9
South-west .....,. aes td Ak ak ae me daie's as 89
West. eeesveeeeeeeeveesvseeeeeereeve eeeeeveoeveveven ef eeee 40
BiOrDaweet oi... <aceces Apa acalaiwcad Beieta cia aniele 30 |
Variable. eeoreee sete easeeeseeseeeseseeeeseereereeeoeee 21
el ae AR ey: it chit BE Piste ty Aimetictcaly be bet ete
Boisterous. eeeoeeeseeecsr eres eeeerereseresseeeese eee 22

Rain, &c.

Inches
Greatest quantity in December. .....+2+e+0005 ewes B280
Least quantity in July. ..... ccc ece cece ereesescers . 0-420
Total amount for the year ......seeesecccscssecere 27-370
gO a rere teliapec te Reet Se hah AE «- 92:000
PU OF TAL oe enn ay oops Saar aor, chek cy . 4000
Days of snow ee 12-000

New Malton, Jan, 6, 1826,

168 Mr. Horner on the (Marcu,

Artice III.

On the Solutions of the Function Y* x, and their Limitations.
By Mr. W. G. Horner.

(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)

GENTLEMEN, Bath, Feb. 11, 1826.

In pursuance of a design long entertained, I request the
favour of your inserting in the Annals the annexed investigation
of the most useful properties of the formula * x, or ¢~" f* ¢ a,

h 4 pe Dg + b,x
Ww enf' 2 = a5:
Diary for 1821, containing a perfectly general solution of this
equation, I had hoped that my hastily written paper of 1817
would not be quoted as the standard of my views on the subject ;
but, very possibly, the succinct statement in the Diary may have
been overlooked by some of your mathematical readers. They
will, therefore, I conceive, be gratified with the present republi-
cation of the same theorem, investigated in a rigorous, yet
simple and perspicuous manner, and supported by so much of
unambitious elucidation as will suffice to convey correct ideas
both of the extent and the limitations which are proper to it when
applied to ordinal, and particularly to periodical functions. On
the latter subject, Mr, Herapath will perceive that a statement
of mine, which he has controverted, is correct, and that an
essential distinction exists between *° a = a, or the second
order, and those superior to it. The foundation upon which
correct theories are to be established, cannot be too cautiously

laid. I am, yours, very truly
” W. G. Horner.

Since the appearance of the Ladies’

ae

1. Leaving the operations ¢ and ¢~*, which are requisite for
giving the utmost extension to our conclusions, to be supplied
a: +b, 2
c.+d,x°
Here a.,, b., &c. represent certain functions ofa variable z, whose
mutual relations to it and to each other, it is our business to
determine. {t is a well-known property of this formula, and
for the application of which, in the first instance, I believe, we
are indebted to Mr. Babbage, that, regarded as a function of a,
it always reproduces formule similar to itself. An important
consequence of this remark is, that x can never interfere in the
functions of z, ifit be absent from a, b, c, d, at the case fix =
a+ber f
c+da
our reasonings, whether they regard f* x as a function of z, or of
x, cannot clash with each other.

by the reader, I proceed directly to the formula /* x =

, assumed as the origin of the functions; and, therefore,

1826.) Solutions of the Function * x. 169

2. On the latter of the two hypotheses, f**+* x being equal -
both to f f* x and f* f x, we obtain by actual substitution, the
following pairs of equal values:

a.,,=4b+ac,=ab, = 9b iNO' S19) act wl eee © (1)
a ce 00. + de GD. Ae Gf asictatindnuhed
Cy = Ce, + 4,d=ce, + ad, Sets ick, Cb
i) Ste 6d, = Od 6d. eda ees CD

From (2) or (3), ad, = a.d. Assume, therefore,

Bae MS. 0, ee) Ot a widrap geidte abate Pd
Consequently a.,, = as,,,andd,,, = ds,,,
Substitute these four values in either (1) or (4), and we have

$4,=,08,+¢,= 6, + ¢s,. eeseesee domaine 4®)
Collecting the results of (5) and (6), we now have

a, = 45., b= 5, Fis, \CuSe are) Sle atetafe a etehs) «6a ~

Gs as., Gel SW Or ag EY ip

and consequently,

: _ as: + G41 — 682) ¢
SUS GTP eee premtork wate eh cutee SS)
or, in a form better adapted for simplifying the results, put g, =

Sz+ 1 S 5
——, which gives

em aot G2 HO)
ghey CIES eae eseeeseeeeeeeoeevee Dies ity

3. The solution, we see, hinges entirely on the quantities s;
whose values may be found as follows. Comparing together

(2), (3), (7), we find
Diva
Cc. +1
and if these be substituted in s.,, = bs.,, +¢.,,, or b.,, +
cs.,,, whichis in the next gradation to (6), the result is,
84g = (O4+ ¢)8,,,— (be — ad)s.. ...... (10)
so that the quantities s in question form a recurring series,
whose scale of relation is + (b + c), — (bc — ad).

Now we already perceive that the terms of this scale, which
for conciseness we shall denote by A and — B, are not altoge-
ther arbitrary. The purpose of a general solution will be defeated,
for example, if either of them vanishes, For, first, letbe — ad
= 0. Thens,,, = (b+ c)s.4,, which produces g, = b + c,a
constant quantity, and, therefore f/* « = f x, a constant quantity.
In fact, the datum itself gives

bs,,, —(bc—ad)s,

cs.,,—(b¢ —ad)s,

I It

ee} = constant OP PP COCO P PE erro eeeoeD (11)

170 Mr. Horner on the [M ARCH,

Secondly, Let6+¢c=0. Thens.,, = d= bec)s,
whence g,... = 9. and therefore f*** a= f° x, and fix = ay
Hence the solution of this equation is
a—-cr
fa= OF Uda PE UPM! Ae Hee CKoMenege Rehes (12)
4, To proceed then with the general inquiry, in which both A

and B are effective quantities, equation (10) transposed becomes

Sito a A s.4,+ Bs. = 0. eecereceresseeee (18)
and, by the theory of equations, this condition is satisfied when

5 A + B p* eeeeerseer esr eases eeeeesees (14)
7, p being the roots of the equation

big = Ay + B = 0 eceoeeseeeeooeeseeeeees (15)
a and # constant quantities whose values remain to be deter-
mined, and x any quantity whatever. In fact, direct substitution
produces

ar(r?—Ar+ B)+ Be (pe — Ap + B)
which is necessarily = 0, because each of the parenthetic factors
is so.
Now when z = 1, wehave, by (1) compared with (5), as, =

ab+ac, giving s,s = 6+c=Az=r-4 9g; and by (5) alone
s, = 1. Hence the equations

ar+BPort feet lisence (16)

ar+p = 1 @eoereesses sees oseoes

5,
S$;

which yield by elimination, ¢ = — B = — and consequently

3S = a+ 6=0. And these results are confirmed by making
z = 0 in equation (13), which thus becomes, as it ought,
s, -As, + Bs, =0
The correct solution, therefore, is,
7 46 reed — pet?

T=? see rap eeerseeeeeere (17)

tg

This solution, detached from the investigation, but succinctly
demonstrated, according to Diarian usage, has been more than
five years before the public, and is the most extensive, perhaps,
that can be obtained. It remains for me to show its application
to some general cases. '

_ 5, When 7, p, are imaginary, we assume, as usual in quadratic
equations of that description,

COS. 4 = PASSO iS ie (18)

A —_
2/B 9/bc—ad
which leads to 7, p = (cos. 9+ / — 1 sin. 9) ¥ B, and 7, ¢°
= (cos.89+ 4 —1 sin. 29) / Be

1826.] Solutions of the Function ¥ x, 171
Whence

sin. 2 set _ 5, 99. At!
6 ag V Bots aan spate eter (19)

and this again produces
— sin@+I)$.VB _ sin(e+1)3.A
} sin, 23 ™ sin, 2.3. 2 cos.
The latter expression, in a more convenient form, becomes
sin. (+1) 3. (b+0)
da SG te etee ce enee ee (20)
In the mean time, the original assumption in equation (18),
when resolved produces
— ( — 2cos.25.5c + c?)
d= 2itauge se ee Sees eee (21)
But there is another quantity, which we may denote by p.,
and which is connected to the rest by the equations

P: + q. = 7 TDs and p. g.-, = T Peernevee (22)
which in the case we are now examining becomes
sin.(z —1) 3. (6 +c)
P: = gin. @ +1) S54 sin, G15 eeerereseeevses (23)
- Ifthese values are substituted in the formule

a+(qQ;-Sr at+(b—pje
if hey 1 ag age cG—p) +de ee eereoes (24)

which are readily seen to be convertible expressions, though one
of them may occasionally be more convenient than the other,
they complete the solution in the case of imaginary roots, or 4 B
> A’.

6. From these general formule, the periodic species are readily
derived, and in a more natural and perspicuous manner than
from the independent trains of reasoning which have usually
been employed.

The general form, then, of the periodic species concerned in
this inquiry, being "2 = x, which flows from fle = v, it is
obvious from Equation 8, that. the general condition of solution
is

n

. bel 2
sho Ob b. ore = 0

Here, ifr —p=0,s, is = nr'-' -, Sy = 0, which leads to
the truism f° 7 = 2, and isno solution.

If + p = 0, which is a divisor of s, only when z is an even
number, we haver +p=A=6b+c= 0; and, therefore,

a—C2#£
fx "e+de
which, as we have already seen (Art. 3), is the proper solution of

«=. It is but incidentally a solution in the general event

of n = 2 m, on a well-known principle common to all the cases
n= mM,

172 Mr. Horner on the Solutions of the Function Y x. [Marcny,

Provided r and p be real quantities, the case admits no other
periodical solution besides this. For 7*—p* has no real binomial
divisors but 7 — p and 7 + p, and its trinomial divisors are all
of the form r? — 2 cos. 9 .7p + p’, which in this case is neces-
sarily > 0.

It is true, that since 7 and p, as the consideration of the hypo-
thesis 7 — p = 0 has proved, are always unequal, the following
conditions will obtain in the general case of real roots ; viz. if
we take r to be the greater root, and » infinite, we shall have
Yn = 7 constant, and thence

at+(r—c)r __ a
Nl (r—b) + da ais eek eveseersereseeee (25)
a constant quantity. To this form then, which must be called
oscillating rather than periodical, the condition of real roots ulti-
mately approaches.

7. The instance of a ball impelled through either focus of an
elliptical table, and continually reflected from the rim, affords
a practical exemplification of this ultimate tendency to simple
oscillation ; for aiter an infinite number of reflexions, it will
vibrate continually in the transverse axis. The analytical expres-
sion of the facts would leadto some unobserved properties of the
ellipse, if this were the place for examining into them. It is as
follows: let S, s, represent the focal sections of the transverse
axis, e the excentricity, and wv the half difference between the
distances of any point of impact from the foci; then the similar
half difference at the 2th subsequent impact will be

‘f Os ais te Nie) Goa et
uf c= (S2" + s?")e+ (S2" — 32") x

BS FP

which continually approximates toward the constant value e.
(See L. D. ubi supra.)

8. After these partial or questionable instances are dismissed,
it appears that wmaginary values of 7, p, are essential to the
periodic character. The conditional equations (19), therefore,
are,

__ sin.ns JB! ==". ( oe ohio rier (27)

* sin, sin. 3 2 cos. S

k ahs é :
Assume $= =) and these conditions are satisfied, provided k be

an integer, and 2k not divis:ble by x. ;
The reason of this restriction is sufficiently obvious; for,
putting 2k = mn, the formule (27) become, when m is even,

s, = n(cos.tma.V/ By =n Al

expressions which, » being arbitrary, can only vanish in conse-
quence of the simultaneous non-existence of A and B, and .-. of
rand p, and in short of the entire hypothesis. When mis odd,

1826.] On the Habits and Food of the Stickleback. 173

wehaveA =2co.ima.V/VB=0+.b4+¢=0, rb=
—c. But, when 6 = — ¢, equation 21 gives d = =e. -—¢

—ad= 0; that is B= 0; so that here also A and B vanish

simultaneously.*
(To be continued.)

Article IV.
On the Habits and Food of the Stickleback.

In volume 3 of the Journal of Science, p. 74, Mr. Ramage, of
Aberdeen, has given an account of a Stickleback, which was
taken alive with a leech “fully as large as the stickleback
itself” in its intestines. The leech “in a few minutes” was
protruded by the anal opening, and crawled on Mr. Ramage’s
hand; but “the stickleback died almost immediately after
giving birth to the strange offspring, and the leech survived it
only about twelve hours.” ‘The appearance and motion of the
leech, it is added, “corresponded in every respect with those of
the common leech, excepting that the colour was entirely
white.” The theory offered to account for this fact is, “ that
the leech was lodged in the small gut, and most probably had
been swallowed by the stickleback for food when ofa small size,
and had grown to its present dimensions in the stickleback’s
belly, after having been swallowed.” The leech and the stickle-
back were transmitted to the Museum of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh.

Upon this detail it may be remarked, that the circumstance
of a stickleback swallowmg a leech is no uncommon one, for

oung leeches seem to be the favourite food of the three-spined.
stickleback, Gusterosteus aculeatus, Lin. My boys had several
sticklebacks alive for some months during the last summer, and
fed them at first with earth-worms, maggots, and occasionally
the small house fly, which, however, did not seem to be relished.
Afterwards, at my suggestion, young leeches were brought from
the ditch, in which the sticklebacks were caught, as being more
likely with the larve of aquatic insects, to form part of their
natural supply, than the food which was submitted to their

% The fallacy of Mr. Herapath’s attempt to prove k = 4 n to be admissible, lies in
his erroneous assumption of the ‘‘ mutual independence” of the numerator and denomi-
(b + c)?

2a (1 + cos. z)
ploys, the very condition of simultaneous evanescence marks their dependence on each
other. For b + c= 0, gives D2? +c? = — 2be..(b + c? =2beo—Vhe at the
same time that the denominator becomes 2a — 2a; which conducts to the same result
as I have given.

++ Edinburgh Journal of Science,

nator in the yalue of d in this case. Even in the form which he em-

174 On the Habits and Food of the Stickleback. [Mancu,

choice. These were found to be preferred to all other aliment,
and for a month at least they had scarcely any other food. The
species of leeches procured were the Hirudo sanguisuga, the
H. vulgaris, and the H.complanata. To ascertain what size of
leech would be swallowed, a male stickleback, of about an inch
and three-quarters in length, was selected, and put in a large
tumbler on a mantel-piece, where its mode of attacking and
devouring its prey formed a source of amusement to the children
for weeks.

On putting the leeches into the water, the stickleback darted
round the tumbler with lively motions, till it found a leech
detached, and in a proper situation for being seized.» When the
’ Jeech was very small, say about half an inch in length, it was
often swallowed at once before it reached the bottom of the
vessel ; but when a larger one, about an inch, or an inch and a
half in length, in its expanded state, was put in, and had fastened
itself by its mouth to the glass, the efforts of the stickleback to
seize and tear it from its hold were incessant, and never failed to
succeed. It darted at the loose extremity, or when both ends
were fastened at the curve in its middle, seized. it in its mouth,
rose to near the surface, and after a hearty shake (such as a dog
would give a rat) letit drop. The leech, who evidently wished
to avoid its enemy, upon its release again attached itself by its
mouth to the glass; but again and again the attack was
repeated till the poor leech became exhausted, and ceased to
attempt holding itself by its disc. The stickleback then seized
it by the head in a proper position for swallowing, and after a
few gulps the leech disappeared. The H. complanata, being of
an ovate form, and having a hard skin, was not attacked, unless
when very young, and scarcely two or three lines in length ;*
and leeches of the other species, when pretty well grown, or
longer than himself when expanded, were killed in the manner
above-mentioned, but not swallowed. In one of his attempts to
seize a leech, the stickleback having got it by the tail, the
animal curled back, and fixed its disc upon its snout. The
efforts of the stickleback to rid himself of this incumbrance
were amusing. He let go his hold of the leech, which then

* It may be mentioned as a curious instance of the wonderful arrangements of nature
in securing the continuance of species, that the young of the H. complanata, which I have
generally found attached to aquatic plants, were, in one instance which fell under my
notice, affixed to the under surface of the parent leech. Thisanimal which, unlike most
of its congeners, never swims, had fastened itself to the side of the glass, and three young
ones, about a line in diameter, were thus exhibited to view in a most interesting light for
an animal so low in the scale of existence. Thus protected, there was nothing to fear
from the attacks of the stickleback, or other enemies. They moved occasionally on the
disc of the mother, and it is conjectured might remain in that situation, until they had
attained such a size as to render further care on the part of the parent unnecessary. To
convince myself that this protection was requisite, I detached one with the point of &
knife, which was instantly devoured by the stickleback. The young H, complanati,
from its transparency, forms a beautiful object for the microscope.

1896.] On the Habits and Food of the Stickleback. 175

hung over his mouth, and darting to the bottom and sides of the
glass with all his strength, endeavoured to rub off this tantalizing
morsel. This lasted for nearly a minute, when at last he got
tid of the leech by rubbing his back upon the bottom of the
vessel. The leech, perfectly aware of the company he was in,
no sooner loosed his hold than he attempted to wriggle away
from his devourer, but before he had reached midway up the
tumbler, the stickleback had turned, and finished the contest by
swallowing him up.

This voracious little fish not only preys upon the young of the
leech, but sometimes devours the fry of its own species. In
two or three instances, when leeches had not been procured, a
young stickleback, about half an inch long, was dropped into
the glass, and instantly swallowed. On other occasions, when
some of the larger size were put in along with him, he contented
himself with killmg them. Perhaps the spines of these larger
fish, which are erected when in danger, and upon the death of
the animal, were too strong for the texture of his throat. Inthe
ponds and ditches where sticklebacks occur, the young fry will
always be found to seek protection in the shallowest parts of the
water from their full-grown enemies. Our stickleback, at
another time, when two minnows, much larger than himself, had
been put in to keep him company, attacked them with fury.
They fled from his bite in evident dismay ; and one of ther,
finding no other means of escape, fairly leaped out of the vessel.
Even a female of his own species was not better treated by this
ungallant tyrant, who allowed no stranger to enter his domain
with impunity.

The young of the leech being thus, it is conceived, a frequent
food of the stickleback, it is not marvellous that such a little
devourer should occasionally gorge himself by swallowine. a
leech of large dimensions for the capacity of his stomach. That
this was the case of Mr. Ramage’s stickleback seems evident
from the situation in which it was found, near the surface of thé
water, and the facility with which it was caught. Leeches
possess the power of contracting and expanding themselves to 4
great degree ; and it is not in the least surprising, that, when
released from pressure by the death of the stickleback, and
swelled by liquid, Mr. Ramage’s leech should appear to be
larger than the animal that had swallowed it. That it could
have lived in the stomach of the stickleback from the period
when it was very young till it attained the size mentioned by
Mr. Ramage, is very improbable. From the circumstance of
sticklebacks feeding on leeches with avidity, it may be inferred,
that nature has provided them with the means of igesting this
species of aliment; and the fact of their being fed for weeks on
leeches alone, and the usual processes of digestion and excretion
going On, raises this inference to absolute certainty. That an

176 Mr. Longmire on the Flame of a Candle. {Marcu,

animal so tenacious of life as the leech, should, shortly after
being swallowed, be found alive in the intestines of the stickle-
back, does not, therefore, appear wonderful, and that the stickle-
back should have died when “a few minutes ” out of the water,
and in the hands of a child, is still less so. The wonder would
have been, had it continued to exist in an element so foreign to
its nature, independent altogether of the danger of leech-birth in
the hands of such assistants. :

ARTICLE V. .
On the Flame of a Candle. By Mr. John B. Longmire.
(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)

GENTLEMEN,

A LIGHTED candle, being a very interesting specimen of com-
bustion, I have added a trifle to our knowledge of it, in the
following observations, which I have the pleasure to send for
insertion in the Annals of Philosophy.

By truncating the flame of a candle, as was first ingeniously
done by Mr. G. Oswald Sym,a cross section of the cone of flame
is obtained ; and it appears a dark disk, surrounded by a lumi-
nous ring. But in this case, the inflammable material, which
should form the upper part of the flame, is forced through the
meshes of fine gauze, and being, in the truncation of a common
candle, the vapour of oil and dissipated wick, partly decomposed,
and cooled down by contact with cold iron into an oily smoke,
it obstructs the view into the interior of the undisturbed flame.

On commencing some experiments on the flame of a candle,
I had not any wire gauze with me, so I made a temporary instru-
ment with some coarse wire, which, happening to have only two
oblong meshes, divided the flame at the top of the cone; and,
on sinking it a little, the flame and some smoke continued to
pass upwards on the outside of the exterior barrs. In conse-

uence, [saw down the interior to the bottom of the blue flame.
The wick is black, except where in contact with fame. A space
is observable all round the wick, between it and tie blue flame.
The whole of the interior, except the wick, is alight transparent
medium.

The vapour of melted tallow issues mostly from the low part
of the black wick, where the heat is least in it, and the melted
tallow, or warm oil, greatly prevails there.

The oil from this part of the wick has a blue flame. When
tallow is touched with red-hot iron, it burns with a white flame ;
but so soon as the iron has cooled below red heat, blue flame
commences. We thence see the reason why blue flame is

~

1826.) Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations, 177

below the white flame in a candle. Blue flame is characteristic
of oily ingredients, in vegetable, animal, and coaly inflammables,
as cotton, paper, coals, &c. Thus if the point of a penknife
blade is put through the blue flame, it returns coated with con-
densed oil. But oil may be drawn from any part of both flames
by holding the surface of a polished pair of snuffers near them.
In this case, they grow dim with mist, that, on being rubbed
with the finger, passes into small globules of oil. This is a
plain indication that the interior of the flame is chiefly filled
with the vapour of oil; and that a part ofit is constantly escap-
ing through the flame. Some of the evaporated oil is probably
oxidated in the faintly luminous medium which surrounds the
cone of flame ; at least this conclusion is more apparent from
the mixture of blue in the low part of that medium.

The interposition of the volatilized parts of a burning candle,
between the wick and air, transfers the power of generating
flame from the wick to the surface of the cone of ascending
volatilized matter; and hence points out the origin of flame in
bituminous inflammables. The ready oxidation of their volati-
lized parts is represented by flame, the less rapid oxidation of
their more fixed or carbonaceous parts by the pervasion of their
bodies with red heat. Next the surface only, can that process
(oxidation) act on the former, while the air can pass into the
porous texture of the latter, and oxidate in every part at the same
time. Thus flame and red heat both represent oxidation with
previous decomposition.

ArTICLE VI.

Astronomical Observations, 1826.
By Col. Beaufoy, FRS.

Bushey Heath, near Stanmore.
Latitude 51° 37’ 44°3” North. Longitude West in time 1’ 20:93”.

16 49 58 Mean Time at Greenwich.
13 10 22 Mean Time at Bushey.
13 11 43 Mean Time at Greenwich.

Jan. 2. Immersion of Jupiter’s first 16h 48’ 37’ Mean Time at Bushey.

New Series, vou, x1. N

178 Memoir on the Expediency of (Marcu,

ArticLe VII,

Memoir on the Expediency of surveying the Indian Archipelago.
(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)

GENTLEMEN,

Amonesr the many voyages of discovery and survey by
which the last sixty years have been distinguished, it is nota
little surprising that some of the most interesting portions of the
globe should still remain unexplored. So minute and extensive
have been the researches of our navigators in every other direc-
tion, that no one will be at a loss to recognize in the exception
here figured, the Islands of the Indian Archipelago, Yes, not-
withstanding the mighty things that have been done, this widely
spreading cluster may, in many important particulars, be deno-
minated a terra incognita—one of the brightest regions on the
face of the earth, occupying an immense space of insular surface,
and, therefore, easily accessible to our power, is, in all that
regards intimate and authentic information, almost unknown to
us. Nota desolate islet-—not a promontory, creek, anchorage,
rock, reef, or sandbank, throughout the whole expanse of the
South Sea, but is laid down with an accuracy that shames the
charts of many important and dangerous parts of our own coasts
at home, while I question whether there be extant a scientifi¢
plan of half a dozen harbours (1 except some of the more
frequented ports in Sumatra and Java) of the hundreds of large
and beautiful islands that garnish the coasts of further India—
countries abounding in all that can administer to the wants, the
comforts, and the luxuries of man.

Such ignorance is more easily explicable than it is creditable
to that spirit of enterprize for which this country has, in modern
times, been sufficiently conspicuous, and which has, especially
of late years, been exerted upon principles and for purposes
honourable to human nature. herag.l

An entirely new and glorious epoch in the history of geogra-
phical and hydrographical discovery signalized the reign of the
first naturalized British monarch of the Brunswick line, and shed
on it what will probably constitute its brightest lustre in the eyes
of posterity ; for then commenced that series of undertakings
which had for their object not the private emolument of indivi-
duals, or of companies—not even the acquisition of national
wealth, but were intended for the benefit of mankind at large.
Thus while other nations boast of their wars and their conquests,
we may honestly exult in the far higher renown of having carried
the noble and useful science of navigation to a point of perfec-

1826.) _ surveying the Indian Archipelago. 179

tion unequalled, and of having furnished the groundwork of
commerce, and its concomitant blessing, civilization, for genera-
tions yet unborn.

Until the year 1764 every enterprize had been set on foot for
private profit, or for predatory or warlike aggression. Unoffend-
ing people were frequently invaded, insulted, subdued, and
oppressed, and hostile retaliation involved the good with the
guilty. It was reserved for Britain to be the first to renounce
such debasing motives of conduct, and to set an example which
the nations of the world might attempt to emulate, but could not
hope to excel. The moment we set sail from Spithead with
Commodore Byron, in the Dolphin (the very names and asso~
ciations are endearingly oceanic) the sea becomes British classic
ground, and this without any straining after metaphor ; for one
of the most patriotic of our poets, whose muse is identified with
our naval glory, has said, with a felicitousness of diction unri~
valled—

a 4 s¢ Her march is o’er the mountain wave,
Her home is on the deep.”

- All the principles of nautical adventure from that hour
assumed a new and more dignified character. Objects the most
interesting to society were pursued to the sole end that society
might reap the advantage. An invaluable accumulation of
natural and scientific knowledge has been the result.

~ To those who rejoice in the moral, as well as in the physical
and political strength of the country, another effect not less
important, though, perhaps, not quite so evident, will appear to
have sprung out of the enlightened zeal, liberality, and publicity,
with which all these expeditions have been ecnddeved Allhas
been fair and above board; nothing has been kept back. From
the number and competency of the individuals selected for these
enterprizes, and from the permission granted to all to keep jour-
nals, the most effectual checks to falsehood, the highest incite-
nents to truth, and the fullest guarantee of accuracy, have been
thoroughly ensured to the utmost limit that human knowledge
admits of. By this means there has been created a greater
demand, orrather a vehement longing after truth, and as a happy
consequence, the standard of value of that precious commodity
has been greatly enhanced.

- Prior to the brilliant era in our history to which I have alluded,
our information respecting distant countries was of a very
dubious and defective kind, depending entirely on the honesty
and ability of individual travellers, and at best was taken with a
large abatement of confidence. Certain general indefinite
notions were acquired from the details of the older navigators,
but when it was wished to ascertain positive facts, an intuitive
distrust was felt that nothing could overcome. So much of the
vague and the marvellous ons into their histories, that it was

N

180 Memoir on the Expediency of [March

often impossible to distinguish what was true from what was:
false. The mind had noresting place. Not to go further back
than Dampier, the most intelligent, correct, and instructive:
voyager, considering his rank and station, that any country has
produced, it is well known that his accounts, until confirmed, as
they have been, to the minutest point by subsequent accredited
authorities, were regarded as little better than the tales of a
Buccanneer. The same may be said of Lionel, Wafer, Woods,
Rogers, and others of the like stamp. Even Anson’s voyage,
though performed by order of the government, has not been
given to the world with all the marks of authenticity about it
that could be wished. Lyruce, the Abyssinian, was set down as
a mendacious fabulist, tilllately that justice has been done to his:
veracity. Hearne’s account of the Copper Mine River was not.
implicitly believed until the disastrous but wonderful Journey
of Capt. Franklin to the Shores of the Polar Sea demonstrated
its general truth. Even the Narrative of Mackenzie, though
bordering nearly on truth, remains to this day unauthenticated,
except by the reports of the fur traders ; nor will scepticism on
some points be wholly set at rest, till the same intrepid and inde-
fatigable officer dispose of it as he did of the other.| Much.
uncertainty prevailed respecting the extent and direction, and.
even the existence of Baffin’s Bay asa bay, and of Lancaster
Sound, &c. and it is but within the last seven years that we have.
witnessed the final adjustment of all those important questions,
and this, be it remembered, has been effected only after repeated
public expeditions, under the sanction of government, and upon
the solemn and conclusive guarantee of national good faith.
Conipared with the private individual accounts of which mention
has been made, how. different is the state of our knowledge
derived from those invaluable public sources. All the results
have, to the utmost attainable degree, the attributes of moral
and physical truth. .
A lofty point of elevation has thus been gained by the country.
in regard to its present character, but more especially in the,
relation which that character bears to posterity. Of this we
may be satisfied, if indeed we require any assurance, by reflect-
ing how much the want is felt of some standard by which to
judge of the actual truth and condition of many things belonging
to antiquity, as these are handed down to us by individuals,
whether poets or historians. How difficult to get at realities!
Often not till after laborious collating of obscure hints and
phrases, and then only by the help of grammatical subtleties,
strained analogies, and constructive interpretations. If, for:
example, instead of the scanty and imperfect notices of certain.
tribes of people afforded by Greek and Roman writers (however
worthy of credence, they possessed few means of informing
themselves correctly), we could have the history of an. expedi-

1826.] iY surveying the Indian Archipelago. 181

tion sent-out by the government of Athens or of Rome, at the
commonwealth’s expense, in the view and on the responsibility
of the public, how much higher would our gratification be, and
how much more satisfactory our information. Extending this
principle a little further, may I not be pardoned for suggesting
that it might be an object not unworthy ofa liberal and fostering
government, to institute a series of accredited expeditions into
every country (even of Europe) of which our knowledge is defec-
tive, and not leave the investigation to casual explorers whose
statements, under every advantage, are liable to error. A body
of general and statistical knowledge would thus be obtained,
available for every useful purpose. This is a view of the subject
that Lam desirous of urging strongly, being convinced of its
beneficial influence in promoting principles and habits which
tend to exalt us as a people. Indeed Government has in some
sort created the desideratum, which, I trust, will not be wanting
in all practical endeavours to supply.
- But to return.—It does not seem very difficult to explain, or,
at all events, to state some of the facts and circumstances which
may have conspired to make us acquainted with the islands of
the Southern, Pacific, and Atlantic, and to conceal from our
more immediate view those of the Indian Archipelago. The
latter were known to exist. Curiosity as to original discovery
was, therefore, laid asleep. The India Company had, as it were,
begirt the coasts of the East with a belt of iron that no private
enterprize dared to penetrate. The influence of monopoly has
since continued to shut out the British people from all participa-
tion in the advantages of trade. Though the Archipelagan
range did not lie within the more immediate jurisdiction
of the Company, yet what amounted to a prohibition of in-
tercourse was imposed by the regulations of this chartered
body. So much of the productions of the East as sufficed for
preventing the different articles from falling too low in the
market, have been doled out to the country, that India Bonds
might maintain their price, and India Directors their place.
While every European power that can send a ship out may pro-
cure the (now) prime necessary of life tea for a trivial consider-
ation, the people of Great Britain must pay an exorbitant price
for the sake of supporting in affluence a .copartnery io which
they owe not one obligation.
_ All these circumstances threw insurmountable obstacles in the
way of private mercantile adventure or speculation, and to this
r have closed, almost hermetically, all the avenues by which
the Indian Seas, and the innumerable resources pent up within
them, might even be approached. Nor can I help presuming
Government itself must often have been deterred, or at
least discouraged, from pushing forward any liberal system of
intercourse or colonization by the exclusory regime of our British

182 Memoir on the Expediency of [MAren,

Rajahs. Hence we at once perceive a reason why, on ‘the
Teturn of peace in 1768, the spirit of national curiosity was
prevented from taking that bias which might have led to a wish’
for more complete information regarding this rich and interest
ing part of the world.

_ On the other hand, the minds of the learned and the spectla-
tive had been long agitated by the subject of a Southern Polar
Continent. During the 17th century, many discoveries made
in the Pacific by the distinguished navigators Tasman, Quiros,
Dampier, &c. but detailed in such a manner as threw over them
an air of mystery and romance that tended to whet public appe-
tite, gave the impulse in that direction to a feeling which indeed
had no other outlet whereby to vent itself. Accordingly a suc-
cession of expeditions on the laudable and benevolent principle
of enlarging the boundaries of natural knowledge, was persevered
in for a period of nearly twenty years, under officers of the
highest reputation, one especially, the most accomplished navi-
gator the world has ever beheld. These expeditions, and subse-
quently other projects, such as the transplanting of the bread-
fruit tree from the Society to the West India Islands—objects
connected with Nootka Sound, the survey of the north-west
coast of America, the pursuit of the fur trade, occupied the
notice of Government, and kept the national attention awake
till the war of the French revolution in a great measure put an
end to all peaceful arts. The importance of New South Wales
as a convict colony rendered a hydrographical examination of
its coasts necessary. This led, during the short armistice of
1801, to the sending out of Capt. Flinders, whose premature
and lamented death furnishes an instance of tyranny the most
cruel and refined of which modern history has given any exam-
ple, and stamps indelible infamy on the Government that sanc-
tioned it. Europe has rung with indignation at the violence
done to all the principles and usages of civilized life, and even
of humanity, by the treatment which this most able and zealous
officer underwent at the Isle of France. It was not the hardship
arising from a few months’ detention, but a lingering captivity
of seven long years, under vexations destructive of his health,
and ultimately of his valuable life. The great things which, with
even small and limited means, he was able to effect may be
regarded as a supplement to that course of nautical investigation
of which I have spoken. The distractions of a fresh war
enforced a pause in all the more speculative pursuits of Govern-
ment, nor was it till the year after hostilities had entirely ceased
that sufficient leisure could be obtained for meditating any
exploit worthy of our character. At that period an expedition
connected with operations that had been some time in progress
for penetrating into the interior of Africa, was sent to the river
Zaire on the south-west coast of that continent, The unfortu-

-

.1826.]. surveying the Indian Archipetago. 183

mate result of that expedition is too well known. Shortly after,
the tide of public attention set towards the North Pole under the
fallacious hope of there finding an open basin of water. This
current, which a single summer’s excursion to Spitzbergen and
round the head of Baffin’s Bay served all of a sudden to freeze
for ever in a manner not yet well accounted for, immediately
took a more westerly direction, and the minds of all people
became filled with a desire of solving the grand problem of a
North-west Passage. This object, so greatly interesting to
geography, has since continued to engross almost entirely the
public anxiety. To encompass it, a series of sea and land expe-

ditions, in their nature immmently perilous, have been performed
with an ardour and perseverance not more creditable to the
projectors than to the devotedness and enduring fortitude of
those to whom the execution was entrusted.

_» While these are pending, hardly any thing of sufficient
moment occurs to engage public curiosity; and as from their
sameness and repetition the edge of novelty and the pain of
anxiety are much worn off, they have, in a great degree, ceased
to produce that intense interest which they at one time excited.
Other fields of enterprize and inquiry must, therefore, be sought
for, and one in every way productive opens on our view. Over

the numerous islands of the Indian Archipelago nature has

oured her bounties and her beauties with an unsparing hand.

These gems of the ocean are the native soil of almost all those
rare and precious herbs and fruits which minister to man’s enjoy-
ments when in health; to his relief when under disease. Yet
more is known of the fungi and the lichens growing on the

barren rocks of Melville Island, than of the fragrant health-

giving plants of the Moluccas! As articles of commerce we see

them, it is true, in the packages of the merchant’s warehouse—
from certain unauthentic sources we gather that they flourish
here or there, but of their minute botanical history we hardly
know any thing precise.

_ A few species of insects and fishes from the more frequented
commercial depots are sometimes brought over to furnish food.
for speculation, or to raise an eager but fruitless desire for fur-
ther information on the part of naturalists; while the exhaustless

swarms of entomonic and ichthyonic life that every where

abound in those regions are to us as though they were not.

We have “ travelling the country” that rara avis the black
swan, and other birds from New South Wales, Van Diemen’s
Land, &c. while the myriads of the feathered tribes that haunt
the Archipelagan Seas and Islands are left to be guessed at

from afew dried skins occasionally finding their way into our
cabinets.

“ih history of the kanguroo, ornithorynchus paradoxus, Xc.

is familiar as household words.in the mouths even of our chil-

184 Memoir on the Expediency of « (MarcH,.

dren, while of the multitudes: of quadrupeds that, inhabit: the
Indian Isles, we know very little, except when, now and then, a
specimen chances to meet our eye in the travelling showman’s
caravan, brought home by some captain of the sea, and appended
to it some idle tale fit only for the nursery. tobuarns
_ Nay, even of man as he exhibits himself in those climates, we
have notices the most meagre and marvellous, though his history,
in regard to. many essential points, be there both curious and
important, while in the remotest islets of the South Sea, every
variety of colour, feature, and form, under which he appears
has been delineated with the utmost degree of minuteness..
Though I am ready to admit that the general view here taken.
iz open to some few exceptions, yet I know that in the main it is
correct. Had all that has been just urged taken place with
respect to China or Japan, those countries of civilized barbarians,
who have shut themselves up from the rest of the world by the
impassable barriers of despotism and prejudice, we might have
felt. disappointment and regret, But happening in regard to:
countries that hold out every enticement to our research, every:
creek of which is approachable, on seas over which our powers:
of locomotion are unlimited, it does assuredly seem strange that.
so few attempts have been made to gain an acquaintance from
which advantages immediate, important, and permanent, must
have resulted. '
Ihave said that my statement is liable to a few exceptions,
and they are few; for I really am not aware of the existence of
any works to which the stamp of truth can be affixed, beyond,
those of Marsden, Raffles, Crawford, Dr. Jack, and of Dr. Hors-;
field.. (Perhaps to this list, a small number of foreign works, but.
of inferior reputation, may be added.) These, however, haveall,,
except Marsden’s Sumatra, made their appearance since the
pelea when the comprehensive and energetic mind of Lord.
into furthering the liberal views of the British Government at
home, burst the spell of directorial thraldom and Dutch tyranny
at the same. moment, and brought a little into play the activity
and genius of the country. During those fortunate years when,
Java and its dependencies were under the British dominion, and.
which may well be styled their years of jubilee,* much was
effected, and of the vast harvest still remaining to be reaped,
particularly in the departments of natural history, some idea may:
be formed from the earnest given by the distinguished authors
and naturalists now cited. All, however, that has been effected,
is but partial and incomplete, as indeed I may fairly infer from

* Unhappily for the cause of science and humanity, the bright prospects which the
possession of Java by Britain held out, have been blasted by the restoration of that.
highly important island to its Batavian masters, whose baneful policy will probably soon
undo the whole of that beneficent system instituted by our Government for ameliorating
the condition of an intelligent, attached, and rapidly improvable peoples

1826.) ~~ surveying the Indian Archipelago. 185

the candid acknowledgements of the writers themselves, as well
as from the avowed purposes and pretensions of their works.

It remains then for a wise and generous government to follow
up by its influence and its power the advantages already gained
for science and natural knowledge, by extending the limits of
survey to those interesting portions of the earth. The present
is a singularly propitious season. The blessings of peace and

lenty have been for some time felt and enjoyed. Government

s leisure, and it has manifested the disposition to cultivate
commercial relation on the broad and truly beneficial basis of
‘reciprocity. Moreover, independently of the considerations due
to science and to the interests of mankind, there are not wanting
others that touch this country more nearly than some are perhaps
aware of.

- The Charter of the India Company must in a few years expire,
and the management of that unwieldy machine ™* lapse into the
hands of Government. The prohibitive system will then, in all
probability, give way to one more consonant to the free spirit of
commerce and sound policy. Should this happen, it would seem
greatly desirable that the trade which would then be opened to
British capital and enterprize, should commence under circum=
stances the most favourable, and that our merchantmen should
not have to navigate unknown seas, but should be provided with
maps, and charts, and soundings, from the (now) only authentic
source, our own Admiralty, that they may be as little as possible
dependent on the clemency or caprice of semi-barbarians.

“But if, contrary to every reasonable expectation, the treasures
of commerce must still be withheld from our grasp by the renewed
ascendancy of the Company, let not the treasures of knowledge
be hid from us. This at least is within the controul of Govern=
ment, nor can the ascertaining the actual condition of the Archi-
pelagan Islands be deemed any infringement of the Company’s:
rights. f

‘An expedition with this object in view would not partake so
much of discovery as of survey. The islands to be visited are all
known to exist ; no time need be lost in endeavours to find out
new lands, but every hour would afford scope for industry and
skill in identifying and tracing the o/d; in inquiring into the
customs, languages, character, and physical peculiarities of the
inhabitants, the climate, soil, productions, capabilities, &c. of the
islands ; the most eligible points of colonization or commercial
establishment, and all the other multifarious objects which the
wisdom of Government would not fail to embrace. From a

* Those who may be inclined to think that I have spoken with but little ceremony of
the East India Company, I would refer to the works of Staborinus, Von Hogendorp,
Sir Stamford Raffles, and Mr, Crawford, in which facts and opinions are stated that
will doubtless increase in importance, as the period draws nigh when the affairs of this
Corporation.must be subjected to parliamentary revision.

186 Expediency of surveying the Indian Archipelago. [MARCH,

three or five years’ expedition of this kind, or from several com-
bined expeditions, conducted by intelligent officers, aided by
the experience of Sir S. Raffles, Dr. Horsfield, Mr. Crawford, and
other eminent naturalists and oriental scholars, what brilliant
acquisitions might we not anticipate! Comparatively small risk
abundant means, and leisure to collect and mature observa-
tions—constant supplies of fresh provisions—within reach of our
own or friendly settlements, whence as often as might. be
accounts could be regularly transmitted home, and from time to
time published; in short, such a field presents itself as for extent
and productiveness exceeds all calculation. oY de aig ae
- I may add besides, what to many is becoming a source of sur-
prise and disappointment, that no exploit of any magnitude
seems in contemplation to adorn the annals of the present reign.
It will be remembered that all the magnanimous and disinte-
rested expeditions sent out by Britain, originated during the
reign of our late venerable monarch, and that however important
the enterprizes that have been brought to a conclusion since the
accession of George IV. they are but the sequel of that system
of generous enterprize which began, but which, I trust, did not
end with the reign of George III. And it will likewise be kept
in mind that though the course or termination of the Niger
should be found out, or the North-west Passage effected,* or the
_ non-existence of the latter determined, the merit and the dis-
tinction, whatever these may be, will, according to the strict
letter of chronology, attach to the memory of that Prince under
whose reign the expeditions were first planned, and partly per-
formed. The consequence will be, that little of this kind of
glory, whatever there may be of any other, will be left to forma
wreath for the brow of our present gracious Sovereign.f

- Nor should it be wholly forgotten that the French and Ameri-
can governments may, if we should not, avail themselves of the
present interval of universal repose, to equip expeditions} that
might forestall many of the benefits which are ours by prescrip-
tive right, and which are now ready, if we be not found wanting,
to drop into the lap of our national prosperity. Some may: be

* We cannot stifle our regret at having seen intimated, though in an unofticial shape,
that all further nautical attempts at a North-west Passage are to be laid aside. Our
sole reliance then must now be.on Capt. Franklin, for I should witness with the deepest
regret the noble object which had so long occupied the energies of a Parry and his brave
associates, snatched from our gripe by the serfs of a Russian Boyar.

+ Weare not unmindful that all the late arctic expeditions, with the one to the Coast
a Guinea commanded by Capt. Tuckey, were sent out under the auspices of his present

ajesty when Prince Regent. whe ils

t{ This prediction has been in part fulfilled since these remarks were put to paper,
and is one of the principal reasons why they have been obtruded in their present imper-
fect shape. A French discovery ship has been actually set apart for the coast of New
Guinea, and the President of the United States has, in a late Message to Congress,
revived a design of Washington’s, to survey the entire coast of America. These expe~
ditions, though limited to special purposes now, may he extended, or may beget others.

1826. Mr. Rainy’s Reply to Dr. Thomson. 187

ready to cry out here; “‘So that the benefits become ours, no
matter through what channel they reach us.” This is not our
sentiment, for so inveterately are we imbued with national par-
tiality that we should wish our own Britain to engross, if pos-
sible, every great atchievement to herself. L object also on other
grounds to having any participators in the scheme which [have
now been so earnestly drawing. The conduct of France in all
that relates to the voyage of the navigators Baudin and Hamelin,
and their transactions with Flinders, coupled with what we know
of the influence of public opinion in that country, show suffi-
ciently what the world has to expect from a French expedition.
_ Again, though in America the freedom of the press be recog
nized to its utmost extent, I distrust the ability of those who
may be employed to perform the work in that finished style
which the advanced state of knowledge renders indispensable.
With Britain it is otherwise. Her openness of proceeding, the
vastness of her reputation, her proved ability, point her out as
the only power capable of executing the task satisfactorily. She
has now reached that pre-eminence which entitles her to dictate,
and ensures the utmost attainable perfection to whatever under-
taking she applies herself. She has hitherto taken the lead in
all that is truly great and liberal in nautical affairs. Her posi-
tion being withal insular, the character and habits of her people
are of necessity maritime and commercial, and their genius bold
and enterprizing. No effort, therefore, should be neglected
that can in any way tend to exalt those peculiarities by which
they are honourably distinguished from any people now existing,
or that ever did exist, and enable them to maintain their high-
reaching “ pride of place” among the nations.

' In one word, the thing is to be done, and Britain must do
ye iy

BA). us

on Articte VIII.

; Some further Remarks on the Specific Gravity of Hydrogen, and
» on Dr. Prout’s Modification of the Atomic Theory, in Keply to
_ Dr. Thomson, By Harry Rainy, Esq.

(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)

GENTLEMEN, . Glasgow, Feb. 15, 1826,

' In a former paper I made some remarks on the new experi-
ments on the specific gravities of oxygen and hydrogen, recently
published by Dr. Thomson in his valuable treatise on the Prin-
ie of Chemical Philosophy. These experiments were consi-
dered by Dr. Thomson, as distinctly proving that the specific

vity of oxygen is to that of hydrogen exactly as 16 to I, thus

ording a strong confirmation of the truth of Dr, Prout’s hypo-

yey
188 Mr. Rainy’s Reply to Dr. Thomson. [Marcu,

thesis. I endeavoured to show that when a proper correction
was made for the influence of vapour, the experiments indicated
that the specific gravity of oxygen is to that of hydrogenas
16:54 to 1, and therefore are opposed to Dr. Prout’s views. In
an answer to my paper (New Series, vol. x. p. 352), Dr. Thom-
son states that the dilute acid which he employed for disen-
gaging his hydrogen consisted of 1700 grains of water to
400 grains of sulphuric acid, that its boiling point was 224°,
and, therefore, that hydrogen evolved from it at 49° would con-
tain vapour of a tension not exceeding that from pure water at
37°, which by Dalton’s table is 0:237. If the correction for
vapour is made on these data, Dr. Thomson shows that it will
follow from his experiments that the specific gravity of oxygen
is to that of hydrogen as 16 to 1:0077. In the detail of the
experiment given in the Principles (vol. i. p. 70), after mention-
ing that the experiment was performed at temperature 49°, Dr.
Thomson states expressly that “ the specific gravity of vapour
at 49° is 000533.” I certainly did not suppose that by vapour
of 49°, Dr. Thomson could mean vapour of temperature 49°, but
of a tension corresponding to 37°, especially as 0:00533 is pretty
nearly the specific gravity of vapour at 49°, if calculated by a
rule which Dr. T. himself has given in the Annals (New Series,
vol, iii. p. 305). I did think it likely that the tension of vapour
from the dilute acid would be somewhat less than from water ;
but as Dr. Thomson had not stated the strength of his acid, E
had no means of estimating the difference, and from his own.
words above quoted, I supposed that he considered the difference
as too minute to require particular notice. i
I believe considerable doubts are now entertained respecting:
the correctness of the method of estimating the tension of vapour:
from a liquid by comparing its boiling point with that of another
liquid, of which the tension at the given temperature is previously
known. This is the method adopted by Dr. Thomson. L
thought it would be satisfactory to take the tension of the dilute.
acid directly. With this view I prepared a mixture, containing
by weight 1700 parts water to 4U0 of the strongest liquid sul-
phuric acid. This mixture had the specific gravity 1-157, and in
various careful trials, I found its tension at 49° to be 0:32, instead
of 0:237 as calculated by Dr. Thomson. In order to find its
boiling point, I heated it in a platina crucible over a lamp. It
boiled briskly at 217°. I kept it boiling till its temperature rose
to 224°. Being covered up and cooled, 185°24 grains of it
dissolved 39 grains of zinc ; whence if we admit with Dr. Thom-
son that the atoms of zinc, sulphuric acid, and water, are
respectively »s the numbers 4°25, 5 and 1-125, it will follow that
the acid which boils at 224° consists of 400 anhydrous sulphuric
acid to 1210 water, or of 400 strongest liquid acid to 918 water.
Dr. Thomson has not stated whether his acid consisted of 1700

1826.J) —--Mr. Rainy’s Reply to Dr. Thomson, 189

parts water to 400 of the strongest liquid acid, or to 400 anhy-
drous acid ; but even on the latter supposition, if my experiment
is correct, its boiling point must have been considerably below
224°; and as the experiment was twice repeated without any
material variation, I do not see any reason to doubt its accuracy.
If Dr. Thomson took the boiling point of his acid ina glass
vessel, it would account in some degree, though by no means
entirely, for the difference in our results. I think it unneces-
sary, however, to make any further remarks on the experiment
detailed in the Principles, as Dr. Thomson himself seems now
not entirely satisfied with it; and as he states that out of ten
similar experiments, this was the only one that appeared to yield
satisfactory results, I am somewhat surprised that he should
ever have placed much confidence in it, and especially that he
should have adopted it as a basis on which to raise such an
important superstructure.

n the new experiment which Dr. Thomson details in his last
paper, he endeavours to deprive the hydrogen entirely of mois-
ture, by passing it through 37 inches of tube filled with chloride
of calcium, which he had found was sufficient to render the
hydrogen gas asdry asit could be made by this method. There
are several objections to our admitting this experiment as suffi-
ciently delicate to enable us to decide on the truth of Dr. Prout’
hypothesis. .

1. The great weight of the flask, and tubes and their contents,
compared with that of the hydrogen to be weighed. The appa-
ratus. with which the beam was loaded weighed more than
a@ thousand times as much as the whole of the hydrogen; it is
not to be expected, therefore, that the absolute weight of the
hydrogen could be ascertained with minute precision. This has
been distinctly adverted to by Dr. Thomson himself.

2. The manner in which Dr. Thomson removes the hydrogen
in the tubes, and replaces it with common air, is liable to
objection. When Dr. Thomson inhales air saturated with mois-
ture at about 60° through 37 inches of tube filled with the chlo-
ride of calcium, some of the moisture must be retained, and
must add to the weight of the tube, and consequently lead the
experimenter to underrate the weight of the hydrogen which has
escaped. In order to obviate this source of error, the air
inhaled should have been previously dried by chloride of cal-
clum. ;

- 8. It results from this experiment, even supposing it quite
correct, that the specific gravity of hydrogen is to that of oxygen
as 1:0077 to 16, or in other terms as 1 to 15°87. This certainly
serosinets pretty nearly to the ratio of 1 to 16; but still the

ence is by no means immaterial. The deviation from an
integer is 012, or about one-eighth, which seems small, but we
must remember that the utmost possible deviation is 0-5, for were

190 Mr. Rainy’s Reply to Dr. Thomson. [Mane

the experimental result to vary from 16 by more than 0:5, ‘it
must approach some other integer. The variation from the
theoretic result in this experiment is actually about one-fourth
ofthe greatest possible variation. Dr.Thomson would probably
reply, that the greatest possible variation would be 1 and not 0°5;
if we compare the atomic weights of oxygen and hydrogen,
instead of their specific gravities; but even admitting this, the
deviation from the theory is still about one-eighth of the greatest
possible deviation. Ad/ numbers which have large ratios to any
given number must of course nearly coincide with integral multiples
of that number, and the coincidence must be so much the nearer,
as the ratios which the former have to the latter are larger. This
is precisely the case with hydrogen. Its atomic weight coms
pared with other bodies is extremely small, and, therefore, if we
assume it as unity, the atomic weights of other bodies must
nearly be integers. Were astronomers to adopt the mass of the
moon as unity, they might represent the masses of the primary

lanets by integers, with great precision, yet I suppose no one

as ever fancied that the latter were exact integral multiples of
the former. Dr. Thomson will himself admit that the truth of
the hypothesis could scarcely be ascertained, were the proofs to
rest ona direct comparison of the atomic weights of mercury,
iodine, or even chlorine, with that of hydrogen, because even
the lightest of these atoms, that of chlorine, is about 36 times as
heavy as the atom of hydrogen. It would not be at all surpriz-
ing, from the imperfections to which even the most refined
chemical researches are still liable, that the actual number
should differ by more than even a whole unit from the above
number. Davy’s experiments led him to adopt a number which
on this scale would be 331. I believe Dr. Thomson’s number
to be nearer the truth; but how are we to decide whether the
true atomic weight is an integer, when two sets of experiments
performed with great care indicate a difference of two units and
a half in the result. To ascertain the truth of the theory, we
must have recourse to atoms of which the weights do not bear
such a large proportion to that of hydrogen. Such are the atoms
of carbon, oxygen, and azote. Could it be proved clearly that
there are integers on the hydrogen scale, there would be strong
reasons for believing that the other atoms are also integers,
This might at first appear a simple task; but we must remember
that the object in view is not to discover the integer which most
nearly coincides with the true number; but to discover whether
or not the true number be precisely an integer, and nota fraction!
The method of ascertaining the relative atomic weights from
the relative specific gravities of the gases, appears to afford by
far the most accurate results; and yet from the impurity of the
gases, and from the small quantities that can be weighed, it is
extremely difficult, if not impossible in the present state of the

1826.) | Mr. Rainy’s Reply to Dr. Thomson. 191

inquiry, to obtain sufficient data, either for refuting Dr. Prout’s
theory, or establishing it on a solid basis. I do not by any means
object to Dr. Thomson’s numbers as very good approximations,
probably the best which we possess at present; but I am as yet
unable to see any satisfactory proof of their absolute exactness,
_ Dr, Thomson observes that in Great Britain at least, the specific
gravities which he assigns for oxygen and hydrogen are univer-
sally admitted to be true, but I am persuaded that they are
admitted by no means in the rigid mathematical sense in which
he holds them. ,

Dr. Thomson, in the conclusion of his paper, has stated some
other proofs, which appear to him perfectly conclusive in favour
of Dr. Prout’s hypothesis. I shall make a few remarks on each
in the order in which they are stated.

1. Dr. Thomson “ determined by actual experiment, that the
specific gravity of hydrogen gas is 0°0694; and the subsequent
determination of Berzelius and Dulong approaches very nearly to
this number.” Now Dr. Thomson’s experiments were made on
moist gas at a temperature which he has not stated. We can-
not, therefore, ascertain from them the precise specific gravity
of hydrogen ; they merely prove, if correct, that the specific gra-
vity of dry hydrogen is less than 0:0694. If the experiments were
made at 60°, it would follow from them that the specific gravity
of hydrogen is about 0-062, and consequently that the specific
gravity of oxygen is 18 times as great as that of hydrogen, and
that the atom of oxygen is 9 times as great as that of hydrogen.
Even were the experiments made at 52°, the results would be
totally inconsistent with Dr. Prout’s hypothesis. It was in fact
these very experiments that first led me to question the truth of
Dr. Prout’s hypothesis. When these experiments were per-
formed, Dr. Thomson did not admit that moisture has any mates
rial influence in modifying the specific gravity of the gases (seé
Annals, New Series, vol. iii. p. 302—308); but now that he
admits that influence, I conceive he must also admit that hig
experiments are hostile to Dr. Prout’s views. ,

_ 2. Dr. Thomson thinks he has adduced conclusive evidence
in his Principles that atmospheric air consists of 4 volumes azote
‘to 1 volume oxygen, Iam by no means satisfied with this
evidence. The results were not uniform. In one instance, Dr;
Thomson found 79-246 azote, and in another 80:927, and though
the mean of 10 experiments, 79:97, approaches extremely near
the theoretic number, it differs from previous experiments made
by Dr. Thomson himself, as well as by other experimenters:
But even were we to admit this point, I do not see how it follows
that the specific gravity of oxygen is 11111, unless we pre-
viously know either the specific gravity of azote, or the ratio of
the atomic weights of oxygen and azote. Dr. Prout extricates

192 Mr. Rainy’s Reply to Dr. Thomson. [MAncu;

himself out of this difficulty by asswming that the atom of azote
is to that of oxygen as 1:75 to 1, and then infers that the specific
gravity of azote is 0:972.

3. “ The specific gravity of ammoniacal gas deduced from a
mean of Sir H. Davy’s experiments and Dr. Thomson’s is
0°590237. It has been satisfactorily proved that it consists of
1 volume azote and 3 volumes hydrogen condensed into 2 vo-

‘lumes. Hence if we admit that the specific gravity of azote is

0-972, it will follow that the specific gravity of hydrogen is
0069417.” This evidence appears at first sight satisfactory ; but
if we assume Dr. Thomson’s experiments on ammoniacal gas, as
the basis of calculation, we shall find the specific gravity of
hydrogen to be 0-071, or 0:073 if we take 0°59669, the specific
gravity of ammonia assigned by Biot and Arago. I see no
reason for giving a preference to Sir H. Davy’s result in this
case, except that it coincides more closely with the hypothesis.

4, Adopting the specific gravities of oxygen and hydrogen,
as determined in the last two paragraphs, it will follow that the
atom of hydrogen is to that of oxygen as 1 to 8-003, a coinci-
dence so near that we may safely assume the real ratio to be
1 to 8. This of course I admit, but the accuracy of the conclu-
sion rests entirely on the correctness of the premises, which I
have already called in question.

5. “ The specific gravity of vapour upon which Mr. Rainy lays
so much stress, is founded on the assumption of this ratio. The
specific gravity of vapour has been settled at 0°625. Now
vapour is a compound of | volume of hydrogen and + volume of
oxygen united together, and condensed into 1 volume. If we
subtract 0°555 from 0°625, the remainder 0:0694 must represent
the specific gravity of hydrogen gas, and 0-°0694 : 11111 :: 1:
16.. Therefore all the calculations and objections of Mr. Rainy
were founded on the admission of the very ratio which he endea-
vours in his paper to overturn.”

I have no doubt that the specific gravity of vapour is nearly
0°625 or0°624, as ascertained by Gay-Lussac. I did not assume
0625 as mathematically correct, but partly because I did not
wish to differ with Dr. Thomson on a point which had no mate-
rial bearing on the argument. It was obvious to.me that the
number 0°625 was not affected with any error that could at all
interfere with my conclusions. Supposing the specific gravity
of vapour to be as low as 0°6, or as high as 0°65, the objections
which I have urged still seem tome unanswered. But admitting
that the specific gravity of vapour is rigidly 0°625, and that each
volume of it contains 1 volume of hydrogen and half a volume of
oxygen, I deny that from these data any inference can be made
regarding the ratios of the specific gravities of oxygen. and

1826. Mr. Rainy’s Reply to Dr. Thomson. 193
hydrogen. Let us call the specific gravity of hydrogen y, and:
that of oxygen 2, it follows from the above statement that =

¥y + 5 — 0:625.

This is an indeterminate equation, which of course discloses
nothing with regard to the ratio of y to x. They admit of an
infinity of values. If we put y = 0-073, we shall find r=1-104,
which were nearly the numbers pitched on by Gay-Lussac. We

shall find 2 = 1:1111 if we make y = 0-0694, but that is one.of
the very points in dispute. Therefore there is no inconsistency
in supposing that the specific gravity of vapour is 0-625, and yet
that Dr. Prout’s hypothesis is unfounded.

Dr. Prout proposed his views, as a probable conjecture, not,
inconsistent with the established facts of chemistry, and, there-
fore, deserving of further inquiry, Dr. Thomson adopted them
as completely proved, and seems to think that they must be
admitted to be true, if they cannot be proved to be false. He
accordingly introduced them into his System, and did not scruple
in any instance to modify experimental results so as to corre-
spond withthem. Dr, Thomson’s System has long been consi-
dered a standard work in chemistry, and probably has contributed
more to diffuse correct views of chemical science than any
treatise that ever was published in Britain. I think it is deeply
to be regretted, that in a work in every other respect so valuable,
most of the experimental results should be vitiated, by modifying
them to suit an hypothesis, which, whether it be true or false, will
tend to retard the science, if adopted prematurely and on insuf-
ficient evidence.

Dr. Thomson has well remarked that this doctrine gives a
mathematical precision to chemical research, which the most
sanguine cultivators of chemical science could searcely have
anticipated. But just in proportion to the importance of these
views, is it necessary rigidly to examine the evidences of their
truth. The evidences hitherto adduced appear to me, for the
reasons already stated, to be by no means satisfactory. Some
of them are even inconsistent with the truth of the hypothesis.
I would not, however, be understood as asserting that Dr. Prout’s
views are incorrect. I think it is still a matter open for inquiry ;
and it is a very remarkable circumstance, that though more than
ten years have now elapsed since Dr. Prout’s paper was pub-
lished in the Annals, no chemist, except Dr. Thomson, should
have engaged in any experimental researches on a subject so

highly ea

‘While I thus freely state my objections to the reasonings.of

Dr. Thomson, I hope I have done so with that deference which .

is due to his talents and experience. The subject evidently
New Series, vo. X1. o

194 Mr. Levy on Two new Minerals. (Marcu;

requires further elucidation, and I am sure Dr. Thomson is too
candid to object to its being fully discussed, however clear the
evidences may appear to his own mind.

Harry Rainy.

ArtIcLE IX.
Descriptions of Two new Minerals. By Mr. A. Levy, MA. FGS,

(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)
GENTLEMEN,

AmoNe many very interesting specimens, and several unde-
scribed substances, which were in the collection of Marquis de
Drée, and which Mr. Heuland, who lately bought it, has added
to his own private collection, are the two of which I now send
the descriptions for insertion in the Annals of Philosophy, and
which belong, I believe, to two new species. For one of them
I propose the name of Beudantite, in honour of Mr. Beudant,
and for the other, at the suggestion of Mr. Heuland, the name of
Konigine, in compliment to Mr. Konig, of the British Museum.

Konigine.

The characters which distinguish this substance from any
aitherto described, were ascertained before the arrival of Mar-
quis de Drée’s collection into this country upon a specimen now
in the possession of the Dowager Countess of Aylesford. The
specimen which subsequently was found to belong to the same
species had the following ticket (cuivre muriaté et phosphate).
In both cases the mineral occurs in small crystals, emerald-green
and blackish-green, translucent, and of either of the forms
represented by figs. 1, 2,3. These crystals cleave only and
very easily in a direction parallel to the plane P of the drawing ;
the face obtained by cleavage is very brilliant, and at right angles
to the lateral planes m. These lateral planes are generally dull

Fig. 1.

1826..° = Mr. Levy on Two new Minerals. 195

and slightly curved, and this last circumstance gives to the crys-
tals, which are rather elongated in the direction of the axis,
something of a barrel shape. For the same reason the incidence
of the lateral planes could only be obtained by approximation
by means of the common goniometer, and appears to be about
105°. A right rhombic prism of 105° may, therefore, be consi-
dered as the primitive form. The ratio between one side of the
base and the height has not been determined, because the angle
of P on e, fig. 3, could not be measured with sufficient accuracy.
The hardness of the substance is nearly the same as that of sul-
phate of lime, and it is very easily pounded. The crystals are
closely engaged together, and are placed upon amorphous ferru-

inous oxide of copper. The locality is Werchoturi, in Siberia.

rom the examination of a very small quantity of this substance
by Dr. Wollaston, it appears to consist principally of sulphuric
acid and oxide of copper, and might, perhaps, be considered as a
subsulphate of copper. This result shows a great analogy
between Konigine and Brochantite, which last mineral, examined
by Mr. Children, was also found to consist principally of sulphuric
acid and oxide of copper. The hardness, colour, matrix, and
locality, of the two substances seem also to be nearly the same,
but their forms appear to be totally different. Brochantite occurs
in thin rectangular tables whose angles are truncated and edges
bevelled, without any appearance of cleavage. Konigine, on the
contrary, is met with in barrel-shaped crystals, with an easy and
most brilliant cleavage in a direction perpendicular to the axis.
When these two very rare substances may be procured in large
quantities, it will, however, be worth the attention of mineralo-
gists and chemists to compare them again.

Beudantite.

__ This substance occurs in small crystals closely ageregated, of
the form represented by fig.4, which is a
slightly obtuse rhombohedron with the
summits truncated. Their colouris black
at the surface, and their lustre somewhat
resinous, but thin fragments are translu-
cent, and of a deep-brown colour. They
cleave easily in only one direction parallel
to the face a’, or perpendicular to the axis
of the rhombohedron. This face of cleav-
age, however, is not sufficiently brilliant to
allow the use of the reflective goniometer
to measure its incidences upon the planes
of the rhomboid. These planes themselves are generally brilliant,
but sometimes slightly curved. The mean of several measure-
ments obtained by the reflective goniometer has given for the
incidence of P on P, 92° 30'. Wy primitive form of Beudantite
)

Fig. 4.

196 Mr. Vivian on the Process of Amalgamation [Maren,

is, therefore, an obtuse rhomboid of 92°30’. The hardness is
sensibly greater than that of fluate of lime. When pounded, the
colour is of a greenish-grey. The matrix seems to be the same
substance in an amorphous state with veins of fibrous hematite ;
it comes from Hohrhausen, on the Rhine.

I am also indebted to Dr. Wollaston for the chemical exami-
nation of this mineral, the result of which is very interesting, the
only substances he has been able to detect in it being oxide of
lead and oxide of iron.

ARTICLE X.

Description of the Process of Amalgamation as carried on in
Germany. Extracted from a Letter to John Taylor, Esq.
from John Henry Vivian, Esq.

Arter some prefatory observations, Mr. Vivian proceeds to
describe the Freyberg processes, which are stated to be thus
conducted.

The silver is extracted from the ores of the mining districts of
Saxony, partly by amalgamation, and partly by smelting ; or, to
make use of technical terms, some ores are treated in the wet,
and some in the dry way. There are two works for smelting,
and one for amalgamation, in the neighbourhood of Freyberg,
_ which is the capital of the mining districts of Saxony. I sh
confine myself, in the present paper, to the consideration of the
processes carried on in the latter.

The Amalgamation-work is situated in a valley, near the
village of Halsbriicke, at a distance of about two miles from the
town of Freyberg, on the small river Mulda. I may here
observe, that in selecting a site for a work of this description,
regard must be had not merely to the proximity of the mines
from which the ore is to be obtained, but to the supply of
water, which should be constant, and in sufficient quantity for
all purposes for which it may be required. With respect to the
arrangement of the interior, the work at Freyberg may safely be
taken as a model, or at all events a description of it will afford
many useful hints in forming a similar establishment. Every
thing is done with a view to save manual labour, and to prevent
a loss of ore or metal in their removal from one place to the
other, or pilfering on the part of the men. At the close of my
remarks, after describing the processes, I shall revert to this
part of the subject, which will be then the more readily under-
stood.

The processes in an amalgamation-work are grounded on
chemical principles. From this circumstance, and from the
order and method that pervaded every part ofthe Freyberg esta-

-1826.} as carried on in Germany. \ ke

blishment, the extreme neatness and cleanliness with which it
was kept, and the skill and science with which the processes
were conducted, together with the civility and attention of the
agents and workmen, I took a peculiar interest in the establish-
ment, and frequently visited it during my residence in the neigh-
bourhood.

It may be well to give a general outline of the processes,
before I enter on the details, that the connecting links of the
system may be understood.

The first operation that requires description is the selection of
ores to form a proper mixture, with reference to the quantity of
silver and sulphur they contain. This is a most material point

_to be attended to. It has been before observed that the amal-
gamation process succeeds best, when the silver produce is about
72 loth m the quintal of ore, or about 75 ounces in the ton.
The object, therefore, is, by a selection of different ores, to bring
the whole as near to this average as can be conveniently

effected ; at the same time regard being had to the proportion of
sulphur contained in them. ‘This is estimated by the quantity
of regule, or sulphuret, found in the ore; which is ascertained
by an assay in the crucible. The standard by which they are
governed is, that a proper mixture of the different ores gives 35

_per cent. of regule ; about one-half of which, or perhaps rather

more, may be sulphur. But as the silver in the Freyberg ores
is rarely in the metallic state, at least in any quantity, it becomes
mecessary to detach it from its combination with sulphur or
other substances, before subjecting it to the actual process of
amalgamation; as otherwise these substances would prevent its
union with the mercury. This is done by adding to the mixture
of raw ore, 10 per cent. of common salt, or muriate of soda ; by
which, duriag the operation in the furnace that follows, a che-

‘mical change is effected. The sulphur becomes acidified, and
the acid thus formed, uniting with the base of the salt, forms
sulphate of soda; whilst the muriatic acid thus set free, combines
with the silver in the ore that was not in the metallic state, and
forms muriate of silver.

In this state the ore is subjected to various mechanical opera-
tions, with riddles, screens, mills, and sieves, until it is reduced
to an impalpable powder. It is then submitted to the action of
‘the mercury, which is the actual process of amalgamation. This
is performed in barrels, which are so arranged as to revolve on
their axis. The mixture or charge in each barrel consists of
sifted calcined ore, mercury, metallic iron, and water, in certain
proportions. The ore is composed of sulphate of soda, muriate
of silver, muriate of iron, and other metals and earthy matters.
By the process of amalgamation, the barrels being made to
evolve during a period of 16 or 18 hours, the muriate of silver
becomes decomposed by the action of the iron on its acid, and

198 Mr. Vivian on the Process of Amalgamation [Marcn,

the silver thus reduced to the metallic state, combines with the
mercury, forming what is termed amalgam ; whilst the sulphate
of soda, the muriate of iron, and other salts, become dissolved
in the water. The silver combined with mercury is then
filtered, by which the surplus metal is separated, and a com-
pound remains in the sack, consisting of six parts of mercury
and one of silver. This amalgam is subjected to the action of
heat in a distilling furnace, by which the mercury is sublimated,
and the silver remains. The silver is then collected, and
melted in a crucible ; but as it contains a portion of other metals
that were combined with it in the ore, it is refined in a cupel or
testing furnace. The residue from the barrels is washed in
large vessels, and the particles of quicksilver still remaining,
are carefully collected. Adib

Such is the general outline of the processes: I shall now con-
sider them in detail.

The ores selected for amalgamation at Freyberg are of two
descriptions; such as contain little or no lead or copper, but
yield from 5 to 8 /oth of silver in the centner or hundred weight;
and stamped ores, that are dressed, clean, and free from earthy
particles. Each parcel of ore, when received at the work, is
deposited in a separate hutch, and its contents in silver and
regule, with the particulars of its component parts, and the mode
in whichit has been prepared, are carefully noted in an ore book.
By this arrangement, the requisite mixture is formed with the
greatest accuracy. The quantity of ore thus prepared at one
time is 400 centner, which is a week’s work for four calcining
furnaces. The contents of this lot in silver, should not exceed
200 marks. The parcels of ore selected for the general mixture
are wheeled from the ore-house, and spread with great nicety
over the floor of a spacious apartment, situated immediately
over the calcining furnaces. The ore is deposited in layers, of
from three to four inches in thickness ; the dry ores are regu-
larly intermixed with those from the stamping houses, and a
layer of salt is placed over one of ore. The salt, which has
been screened to prevent any lumps from remaining, is let down
on the ore, by a pipe which communicates with a wooden case
on the floor above, formed so as to contain the requisite quan-
tity. A heap from 21 to 3 feet in depth is thus formed of alter-
nate layers of ore and salt. As each layer is carefully spread
over the surface of that beneath it, a regular mixture of the
whole is obtained, on being cut vertically through. When the
whole has been well mixed, it is separated into portions or
charges, of 4 cwt. or two barrow-loads each. These are removed,
as it is found necessary, to a part of the room, the floor of which
is covered with tiles, and is a little lower than where it was
mixed. These charges are laid in separate heaps, ready for the
furnaces, which are on the ground-floor, immediately under; so

1826.) as curried onin Germany. 199

that each charge can be let down through an opening communi-
cating with the interior of a furnace. The calcining furnaces
are reverberatory, and of small dimensions.

Four of these calcining furnaces are arranged together; that
is, in two rows, with a common stack in the centre. They are
surrounded by a screen, which prevents any vapours that may
escape through the front door from finding their way into the
building. The space within the screen communicates with the
flue.

The form and arrangement of a furnace for this purpose may
be modified according to circumstances and the nature of the
fuel to be employed. The charge of ore in the Freyberg fur-
naces will appear to those accustomed to the large reverberatory
furnaces of this country, which often contain from 60 to 70 ewt.
of ore, as exceedingly small. It is possible that the Saxon fur-
nace may admit of being enlarged with advantage, or perhaps
improved in form ; but it should be borne in mind, that the
operation to be performed in it, 1s not a simple calcination of
ore, preparatory to its being brought into fusion, but a process
in which certain chemical: changes and combinations are to be
effected, on which the success of the whole amalgamation
system depends; and, therefore, to overcharge the furnace, or
to make it of such dimensions as might not be in every respect
most convenient and manageable, with a view to a trifling eco-
nomy of fuel, would be highly improper.

On the part of the workmen, the utmost attention is required.
to prevent the ore from caking together, which, from the mois-
ture contained in the salt, it is disposed to do; especially it is
necessary to avoid the slightest degree cf vitrification. The
charge should be kept well rabbled, and should be occasionally
shifted from one part of the furnace to the other, that the whole
may be equally exposed. The heat should also be regulated
according to the state of the ore. In the beginning, it should
be very moderate, and should be gradually increased as the pro-
cess advances. At Freyberg, when the ore becomes thoroughly
heated, the sulphur begins to burn; and when this is perceived
to be the case, the fire in the grate is slackened ; and instead of
wood, which is the fuel employed in the first part of the process,
a small quantity of coalis thrown on, just to keep the fire alive.
The burning of the sulphur generally continues from two to
three hours; and after it has ceased, the fire is increased, and
a tolerably strong heat is kept up for about another hour, until
on repeated trials on small quantities of ore, taken out with a
ladle from different parts of the furnace, no more sulphurous
smell can be perceived; but rather a smell of muriatic acid,
denoting the decomposition of the salt. ‘The ore is then drawn
out through the front door of the furnace, into a sort of iron

200 Mr. Vivian on the Process of Amalgamation [MARrcn,

barrow on two wheels, in which it is taken to a convenient place

to cool; and the process is repeated on another portion of ore, ©

as before described.

. This preparatory operation is altogether of such importance
in an amalgamation work, that I cannot too strongly impress
the necessity of the strictest attention to it; and a few observa-
tions, in addition to those I have before made, may not be super-
fluous.

The chemical changes that take place during the process are
the following. In the first part of the operation, the sulphur
becomes acidified, and from there being no fuel to be decoms
posed during the burning process, the whole of the atmospheric
air that passes through the furnace is available for that purpose.
A portion of the acid thus formed, unites with the metals in the
ore, and forms sulphates. These are again decomposed on the
heat being increased, when the sulphuric acid unites with the base
of the salt, and forms a sulphate of soda, or Glauber salt ; whilst
‘the muriatic acid thus liberated attaches itself to the silver, for
which it possesses a strong affinity, and forms muriate of silver.
By this means, the silver contained in the ore is detached from
its natural combinations, and instead of being in the state of a
sulphuret, as in the raw ore, it is, by being exposed to the fire
in conjunction with salt, converted into a muriate.

The necessity of attention to the quantity of sulphur contained
in the ores mixed as I have before described, is easily under-
stood, on considering the nature of the chemical change to be
effected: for it is evident, that if there should not be a sufficient
portion of sulphur to form the quantity of acid necessary to
decompose the common salt, the silver will not be converted
into a muriate, and consequently it will not be suited to the
process of amalgamation. On the other hand, it is most mate-
rial that the whole of the sulphur contained in the ore should be
acidified, or expelled; for if any portion of it remained in com-
bination with the silver, the union of that metal with the mereury
would not take place.

The calcined ore, as I shall call it by way of distinction, is
filled from the depositing place, into small wooden boxes, each
containing 1 cwt. Six of these are placed in a square case, and
raised to the upper story, through an inclosed shaft, by means
of a windlass placed under the roof of the building. The ore is
here passed through riddles or screens, in order to separate any
pieces that may have been imperfectly calcined, from its having
caked together.

The workmen carry the ore in boxes up the steps, and at the
landing place empty them into the opening, which is furnished
with a cover; from whence it rolls down over two inclined
screens placed right and left, the holes of which are about half

ee ee ee

1826.] as carried on in Germany. 201

aninch square. The coarse parts fall into moveable boxes; the
fine particles, or what passes through the screen, fall into the
cases, the opening to whichis onthe opposite side to the stairs.
This machine is inclosed in a wooden case, and is surmounted
by a funnel or chimney, which communicates with a receiving
ph raber immediately under the roof of the building. By this
means, any fine particles that fly off during the operation are
collected, and the workmen are not inconvenienced.

The coarse stuff from the upper screen is broken on a table
placed near it, and being mixed with two per cent. of salt is
again calcined. The finer parts that pass through the riddles
i into a hopper placed over a moveable screen on the under

oor,

The holes in the grating of the screen are of two sizes; those
in the upper part being somewhat smaller than those in the
lower. The calcined ore falling upon the higher part of the
sereen, the finer particles pass through; those that are coarser
roll down, and some pass the larger apertures of the lower part
‘of the screen ; whilst that portion which is too large for either,
and which is trifling in quantity, rolls entirely over the screen,
and falls off at the bottom. Thus three sizes of stuff are
obtained. The coarsest part, which does not pass through the
screen, is treated in the same way as the coarse stuff from the
upper riddle. The finer parts are passed through wooden pipes
to the lower floor, and are there ground in granite mills which
are precisely similar in construction to those used for grinding
corn. The ore which passes through each part of the screen is
ground separately, the particles being of an uniform size,

After being ground, the ore is passed through a fine sieve;
and being now reduced to an impalpable powder, is fit for the
process of amalgamation. :

The object in reducing the ore to so fine a powder is, that the
mercury may act on every portion of it, so as to extract the
smallest particles of silver it may contain. The calcination of
the ore renders it more frangible, and therefore facilitates the
operations necessary to bring it to the state just described.
The Freyberg works contain two coarse and two fine screens,
and 14 pair of grinding stones.

(To be continued.)

202 | - Analyses of Books. [MArcn,

ArTICLE XI.
ANALYSES OF Books.

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, for
1825. Part LL. ) M6

Tuis part of the Royal Society’s Transactions contains a
somewhat unusual number of important as well as extended
papers, in many distinct branches of philosophical inquiry. To
give a satisfactory account of every paper would be impractica-
ble: we must, therefore, confine our notice of some to a state-
ment of their general object, in order to allow room for a more
complete analysis of others.

X. Onthe Anatomy of the Mole Cricket. By J. Kidd, MD.
FRS. Reg. Prof. of Medicine in the University of Oxford.

‘The venerable entomologist who has just brought to a con-
clusion the “ Introduction” to his favourite science, in which,
with his friend Mr. Spence, he was so long and so meritoriously
engaged, in his Introductory Address, explanatory of the views
of the Zoological Club, delivered at the foundation of that Society
on Nov. 29, 1823, as already recorded in the Annals, expressed
himself in terms of some regret with regard to the state of the
Comparative Anatomy of the Invertebrate Animals amongst our
naturalists. ‘“ France,” he observed, “ in which this science
has attained to its acme, can boast of her Cuvier, Savigny,
Marcel de Serres, De Blainville, Chabrier, and others ; Germany
of her Blumenbach, Ramdohr, Treviranus, Herold, and a host
besides ; Italy of her Malpighi, Spallanzani, Scarpa, and Poli;
Holland of her Swammerdam and Lyonnet; but the only boast
of Britain, an illustrious one indeed, nec pluribus impar, is her
Hunter; and even he, if my recollection does not fail me,
employed his scalpel chiefly on the higher orders of animals.”
Whether this reproach, from authority so high, has roused the
attention to the subject of those who study the second grand
division of animated nature, or whether we are to ascribe the
results we are about to mention to the general stimulus which
has of late been given to zoological science in general, in this
country, we know not; but certain it is, that our anatomy and
physiology of the Invertebrata have received some very import-
ant contributions since Mr. Kirby’s address was pronounced.
Among the foremost of these is Mr. W. 8S. Macleay’s Anatomi-
cal Observations on the Tunicata, a natural group represented
by the Linnean Ascidia; and which completes the circle of
affinity between the lowest subregnum of the animal kingdom,
the polype Acrita, and the acephalous or bivalve Mollusca. This
was published in the last part of the Linnean Transactions ; and
in the same rank, though perhaps less rigorously scientific in its

1826.) Philosophical Transactions for-1825, Part IT. 208

form, we are disposed to place Dr. Kidd’s paper on an extraor-
dinary and interesting species of the Annulosa, in the Philoso-
phical Transactions now before us. Without further preface,
then, we proceed to give the results of Dr. Kidd’s researches ;
and in order to make room for the copious extracts their interest
demands, giving the descriptions of the less important organs in
a compressed form. ;

After some general remarks on the natural history, habits, and
food, of the Mole Cricket,* the author describes, in the follow
ing terms, its ‘external characters.”

“< Destined like the common mole to live beneath the surface
of the earth, and to excavate a passage for itself through the soil
which it inhabits, the gryllotalpa is furnished like the mole, with
limbs particularly calculated for burrowing ; with a skin which
effectually prevents the adhesion of the moist earth through
which it moves; and with exactly that form and structure of
body, by which it is enabled to penetrate the opposing medium
with the greatest ease. At the same time, in order to prevent
the necessity of its excavating a track so wide as to admit of the
body being turned round in case ofa desire to retreat, it is endued
with the power of moving as easily in a retrograde as in a pro-
gressive direction; and, apparently to perform the office of
antenne, which warn the insect of approaching danger in jts
progressive motions, it has two appendages, which might not
improperly be called caudal antennez, evidently calculated to
serve a similar purpose during its retrogade motions; particularly
as they are furnished with very large nerves. The indifference
with which the insect is disposed to move in either direction is
manifested by the following experiment : if you touch it towards
the head, it retreats ; if towards the other extremity of the body,
it advances.

« The general colour of the animal is such as indirectly to
serve as a protection to it, being nearly of the same hue as the
vegetable mould in which it lives ; so that it is not very readily
distinguished upon being first turned up to view; and its safety
seems to be still farther insured by the appearance of death,

* This appropriate name, we may observe, seems to have heen first bestowed upon
the animal, by our old entomologist Mouffet ; for in his Insectorum sive Minimorum
Animalium Theatrum, which was published at London in 1634, and from which, though
the earliest work expressly devoted to insects, valuable information may sometimes be
derived, we find the subjoined remarks commencing ‘* Cap. xxiv. De Gryllotalpa.”

** Liceat hic queso nobis pre nominum inopia dvouclorossiv.

*¢ Bestiolam quam expressimus, Cordi Sphondylis, Dodonzi vera Buprestis est : per-

erm uterque nominant et nullojure. Sphondylis enim alas non habet, hoc Insectum
vides alatum. Buprestis Cantharidi similis apud omnes dicitur; hoc vero animal nec
figura, nec colore, nec magnitudine quicquam eo accedit ; ut taceam elytrorum hic ab-
Sentiam, quibus Cantharides carere nemo sanus contenderit. Gryllum dicimus, quia
> gag cum Gryllo stridorem nocte appetente facit. Talpam, quia terram continuo

dit. Belgis Weemol, Anglis fenkricket, evechurré, atq. etiam Churrworme dicitur.”
‘The name appears.to have been speedily adopted into general use; for in the Museum
Tradescantium, published only twenty-two years afterwards, in 1656, among the Insecta
is mentioned, “ Grillo talpa tardi-gradus,”

204 B dias Analyses of Books, [Marcn,

which, in common with many other insects, it assumes when
suddenly disturbed. This stratagem, for so it may be called,
appears to be most decidedly practised by the animal while in
captivity ; and if thrownat random out of the vessel in which it
has been confined, however unnatural the posture may be into
which it has been thrown, it remains as it were in a state of
catalepsy during half a minute or more; the first indication
which it gives of recovery from this stupor, invariably consists
in a motion of the extremity of the antenna.

“‘ The general colour of the insect is a dusky brown, passing
either into a reddish brown, or into an ochry yellow; those
parts being of the darkest colour which are most exposed to
view when the animal is moving in the open air. Every part of
the body is to a greater or less degree covered by a kind of
down, which seems to be the efficient cause of its capability
of repelling moisture; which capability is so remarkable, that
when the insect is plunged under water, it appears as if cased in
silver, or some bright metallic covering ; this appearance being
evidently derived from a stratum of air, interposed between its
body and the surrounding liquid. This down not only serves to
repel the adhesion of any moist substance to its body, but also
facilitates the motion of the animal, by lessening the degree of
friction which would otherwise take place; and it is owing to
the same circumstance that there is an unusual degree of diffi-
culty in retaining a sure hold of the insect, even when dead ;
but more especially when alive, and struggling against deten-
tion. The degree of force which it commonly exerts on such
occasions is very remarkable; and, from the sensation produced,
may easily be supposed to be what Rosel says it is, equal to the
counterpoise of two or three pounds. The skin or covering of
the insect is in some parts nothing more than a thin membrane ;
in other parts it resembles soft leather; and sometimes equals
horn or even shell in its degree of hardness.”

Head. Upper part and sides a thick, hard, horny case, con-
taining the motor muscles of the jaws: in order to strengthen it,
two firm bars run transversely across the bottom both of the
anterior and posterior margin, which are united by a still stronger
bar running longitudinally from the middle of the one to that of
the other.

“ The antenne, which are situated near the articulation of
the mandibles, consist of a great number of minute segments ;
resembling beads ofa circular form: the number of these beads,
‘which varies in different instances, is usually from 100 to 110;
rarely more or less: but it is worth noticing that in examining
the two antenne of the same individual, I sometimes found the
number of beads greater in one than in the other; and as the
terminal bead differs in its form from all the rest, the result, of
the examination is less open to doubt than it would otherwise

have been. Each bead is united to the one that precedes and

1996.} Philosophical Transactions for 1825, Part IT. 205

the one that follows it by means of a soft, white, very flexible
membrane ; in consequence of which, and of the number of the
pine, the insect can move and bend the antenne with great

cility in every direction, excepting at the very root: there the
motion is confined by a ridge that only admits of its being
directed from behind, forwards, or vice versd.

“ The anterior edge of each bead is fringed with bristly hair ;
which, surrounding the joint that connects it to the following
bead, gives to the whole, when viewed by a magnifying lens,
the appearance ofa sprig ofequisetum. The beads are upon the
whole larger, in proportion as they are nearer to the origin of the
antenne ; but here and there, and without any regularity in the
variation, one of the beads is either much larger or much smaller
than those in the vicinity.

** Whatever be the primary use of the antenne and palpi, on
which subject entomologists are not agreed, their general
importance is allowed by all; and is evinced in the particular
instance now before us by the extraordinary attention bestowed
upon them by this insect. Those who may be led to watch its
habits, will repeatedly observe the antenne bent forwards and
downwards, by a curious application of the fore-legs towards
the mouth: and then by a regulated motion, not unlike that by
which the resin is applied to the bow of a violin, they are passed
between the maxille: in order, as it would appear, either to
moisten the organs, or to disengage from their surface, particles
of dust or other extraneous substances which may have acci-
dentally adhered to it. With a more rapid motion the insect
from time to time dresses, if I may use the expression, its palpi;
bending them inwards and brushing the surface of their extreme

arts by a frequent application of the maxille. A similar care
of the antennz and palpi is observable in the gryllus viridissi-
mus; with the additional circumstance, that that insect very
often passes between its maxille the curiously padded surfaces
of its feet, much in the same manner as a cat licks its paws.

*« The Eyes. The gryllotalpa has two compound eyes, as they
are called, and two ocelli or stemmata. Latreille uses this
expression “ocellus medius subobiteratus ;” from which it may
be inferred that he supposes the ocelli to be three in number ;
but after the most careful examination I have not been able to
discover more than two. The compound eyes are situated
immediately behind, but a little exteriorly to the antenne: the
corne of these eyes, which are large in proportion to the size of
the head, are segments of a sphere ; flattened however on the
inner side so as to present a vertical plane surface to a similar

lane surface in the opposite eye ; and it is remarkable that this
part of the cornea, and the mere margin of the rest of it, are the
only parts capable of freely transmitting light : all the remaining
portion is covered, on the interior surface, by an opaque pulpy

206 ~Analyses-of Bookse.-- ---—-- [Marcny

membrane, or pigments of a mulberry colour; yet the portion
obstructed by this pigment is in itself nearly as transparent as
flint glass: it is studded over on the interior surface with
numerous depressions of a circular form, which, being very
closely set together, give it a reticulated appearance.

“The stemmata are placed between the middle of the com-
pound eyes, so as to be rather further from each other than from
the eye of the same side. They are not so large as a very
minute pin’s head, of a lenticular form, perfectly transparent,
but not quite colourless, resembling particles of very pale cairn-
gorum quartz. In two instances I have found only one of the
stemmata, without any trace of the other. An anomaly some-
what of the same kind has been observed by the father of my
friend Dr. Ogle, of this University, in the case ofa man; on one
side of whose breast the usual rudiments of a mamma were
entirely wanting.

_ “With respect to the small quantity of light admissible
through the cornez of the eyes of the mole-cricket, it is appa-
rently sufficient for the purposes of an animal living almost
constantly underground. The spherical form of that part of the
cornez which is itself incapable of transmitting light is probably
intended, as was suggested to me by Mr. Whessel, to whom I
am indebted for the principal drawing which accompanies this
paper, as a protection for the vertical transparent portion.”

horax. An irregularly cylindrical, anteriorly conical, strong
horny case, its upper portion and sides covered with fine down,
almost entirely occupied by the muscles of the fore-legs, which
are attached to an almost bony septum of a complicated form,
that divides the cavity longitudinally.

We pass over the general account of the abdomen to that of
its last segment, which sends out from each side of its upper
surface two “ caudal antenne,” * as Dr. Kidd denominates them,
of a tapering form, and differing essentially in structure from
those of the head, as they are not jointed, excepting at their
very commencement: they are furnished with short closely set
hairs, interspersed with long single hairs. They are evidently
very sensible, and serve probably to give the animal notice of
any annoyance from behind ; they are partially hollow through-
out great part of their extent, and muscles may be traced into
them from the adjoining part of the abdomen.

“‘ The Legs. The anterior legs passing out from under the
hind part of the thorax, advance by the side of the head in a
direction parallel to each other, which is their natural position
while the animal is at rest. [should deem it a servile adherence

_ ® As these organs are certainly analogous to the cerci of the Blattide and some other
families of insects (though they differ from them in being conical and devoid of joints),
that appellation, we conceive, would have been more appropriate than the one Dr. Kidd
assigns thems

1826.] ~ Philosophical Transactions for 1825, Part II. 207.

to system were I to describe the parts composing these legs by
the terms strictly indicative of the order of their succession ; for
thus that part which answers so eminently to the character of a
hand must be called the tibia. I shall beg leave therefore to
state principally that the fore leg of this insect consists of three
main parts, with a lateral appendage attached to the last of
them. The two first of the three parts bear some general resem=
blance to the claw of the crab; being short and thick, for the
purpose of affording room for powerful muscles, intended to
move the last part; which is the immediate instrument employed
by the animal in burrowing.

“It might I think be asserted, without the fear of contradic-
tion, that throughout the whole range of animated nature, there
is not a stronger instance of what may be called intentional
structure, than is afforded by that part of the mole-cricket
which I am now to describe.

“ The natural and constant position of this member is worth
noticing ; the palm, as it may be called, facing outwards, and
the claws ranging not in a horizontal but a vertical line, so that
none of them but the lowermost, and not even this necessarily,
touches the surface on which the animal is walking. Accordingly
the insect does not make much use of its fore-legs in walking ;
and, if irritated, it advances towards you with these legs elevated,
in a menacing attitude as it were; not unlike the corresponding
attitude of the insect called the mantis. The form of the hand
is that of a triangle ; the base of which is formed by the four
claws, while the apex is situated at the joint connecting this with
the preceding part; by which form and disposition two important
objects are gained; for the joint is thus capable of a much
greater extent of motion than it could have possessed, had the
articulating surface been more than a mere point; and at the
same time, the greater extent of the base enables it to act with
more powerful and more rapid effect than could have been
otherwise produced. The four claws, which form this base,
constitute the proper burrowing instrument; and their shape
and structure are beautifully adapted to the purpose ; for instead
of being covered with down or hair, like all the rest of the limb,
they are hard, and have a perfectly polished surface ; doubtless
in order to prevent as much as possible the adhesion of the earth
through which the animal is tomake its way; they have each of
them sharp but strong points, which proceeding from a broad
base are thus rendered more effectual. In each also of the
claws one of the edges is sharp, while the other is comparatively
blunt ; and all the cutting edges, as also the terminating points,
are directed downwards. Their outer surfaces are slightly con-
cave both in the longitudinal and transverse direction; so that
all together they form a scoop as it were, by which the earth
that has been scraped off by the points is moved out of the

208 Analyses of Books. [Marew,

way. They are also each of them divided longitudinally on
their concave side by three or four slight ridges; so that,
though highly polished, their surface is not absolutely smooth ;
and thus being concave and uneven, they are more apt to retain
particles of the excavated earth ; which, by filling up the inden-
tations of the claws, would necessarily impede their due action.
To obviate this inconvenience, an exceedingly curious instru-
ment is attached to the upper part of the concave surface of this
member: this instrument consists of two claws, closely resem-
bling those already described, having by their side a small
brush as it were, which terminates in two spines, These two
claws, together with the piece bearing the spines, arise from a
single piece, or handle, which is articulated in such a manner,
as to move ina plane parallel to that in which the four claws
are placed : but in a direction opposite to that in which they are
moved : they are also placed in such a manner that their points
and cutting edges are opposed to the points and cutting edges
of the true claws ; and hence the two parts, thus opposed to
each other, act like the blades of a pair of shears. When first
T considered this mechanism, and remembered that in the loca-
lities where I had found the animal, the earth was frequently
traversed by fibrous vegetable roots, which must necessarily
retard its progress, I supposed that it used this instrument as a
pair of shears to cut through those fibres. It is Rosel’s
opinion, however, that the instrument is intended to clear the
true claws of the dirt that may from time to time collect upon
and clog them; and unless both opinions be true, Rosel’s
appears the more probable. But I have not yet concluded the
account of the curious mechanism of this member; for the
brush which has just been described, has only such an extent of
motion as enables it to clear the two uppermost claws, or at most
the three uppermost: the two lowermost howeyer may effec-
tually be cleared by a kind of feathered spur, which, arising
from the further extremity of the joint answering to the femur,

roceeds directly towards the lowest part of the burrowing
instrument, and is easily made to sweep over the surface of the
two last claws by bending the intermediate joint, the only differ-
ence in its mode of action being, that it passes over their inner
instead of their outer surface.

“ The middle pair of legs, which are the smallest of the three
pairs, arises from the under part of the first segment of the abdo-
minal division: they pass out from the body at right angles to
the abdomen, and usually are seen in that direction whether the
animal be in motion or at rest. They consist each of four parts;
a very short coxa, a femur and tibia nearly equal in length to
each other, and a tarsus, which consists of two long and an
intermediate short joint ; the last joint terminated by two curved
spines. There are several sharp, hard, straight spines near the

1826." ~ Philosophical: Transactions for 1825, Part II. 209

angle made by the union of the tibia with the tarsus ; some of
which being directed downwards, give the insect a firmer hold
in walking.
_ “The hind legs beara general resemblance to the middle
legs; but the coxa, femur, and tibia, the femur especially, are
much larger and stronger; the relative position of the parts
with respect to each other is the same as that of the middle
legs ; but their general direction, instead of being at right
angles to that of the abdomen, is parallel to it. In addition to
several sharp spines placed about the joint of the tibia and tarsus,
and directed downwards as in the middle legs, there are four or
five others placed at the back of the tibia near its lower extre-
- mity, and pointing slightly downwards. The structure of the
tarsus scarcely differs from that of the middle leg. These hind
legs are evidently the great instruments of progressive or retro-
gressive motion.” .
. Omitting the description of the wings, and proceeding to that
of the digestive organs, we find the author combating the opinion
that the gryllotalpa ruminates, and stating the internal structure
of the parts to destroy the probability of its truth. Its digestive
organs resemble more closely those ofa granivorous bird than of
any other animal. One of the most remarkable is the gizzard,
which terminates a shorttube passing from the crop towards the
intestines. It is scarcely larger than a hempseed, nearly sphe-
rical, consisting of a thick external muscular coat, lined by a
glandular membrane, the inner surface of which is divided lon-
gitudinally into six equal parts, separated from each other by
two dark-brown horny ridges ; each division is furnished with
three series of serrated teeth, of the consistence, and nearly of
the colour of tortoise-shell, running from the top to the bottom,
There are 15 teeth in each of the three series of the six divisions,
making in the whole 270. Four of these divisions terminate in
a tapering membranous appendage, consisting of a natural fold,
which serves to convey onwards any fluid particles that may
have been pressed out by the action of the gizzard. This is
contained in a large membranous cavity of the shape of a horse-
shoe, the base of which passes across the lower extremity of the
gizzard, while the sides form two enormous ceca, which ascend
obliquely outwards on each side of the gizzard.

The jejunum, great intestine, and liver, we have space only
to mention, and proceed to extract Dr. Kidd’s account of

“ The Blood. Upon wounding the animal in almost any part
of the body, even in cutting off a portion of the caudal antenna,
there oozes out a very clear thin fluid of a bright honey-yellow
colour; having sensibly alkaline properties, and coagulating
either by heat or by the addition of alcohol. A quantity of this
fluid, weighing 1-85 grain, being evaporated under an exhausted
receiver, in which was placed dry muriate of lime, left a solid

New Series, vor. x1. P

am: sure ‘Analyses of Books. [Manent,

residuum of a bright golden yellow colour, which weighed 0:25
grain; this residuum was brittle, and had the general pro-

erties of solid albumen. The foregoing characters render it

ighly probable that the yellow fluid distributed through the
body of the insect, resembles in its nature the serum of common
blood, and there can be no doubt, arguing physiologically, that
this yellow fluid is the blood or nutrient juice of the animal. I
wish I could as satisfactorily show the means employed by
nature to distribute this fluid through the system of this and
other animals of the same class; for, though I cannot hope to
discover what more experienced and skilful anatomists have
sought in vain, a heart, namely, and a system of circulating
vessels ; yet I cannot subscribe to their opinion, that the blood
transudes through the coats of the intestines, where of course it
must be primarily formed, and thence passes, as through the
pores of a sponge, to every part of the body. Both Cuvier and
‘M. Marcel de Serres completed avery elaborate set of experi-
ments for the purpose of ascertaining whether the dorsal vessel
of insects sends out any lateral branches which might serve the
purpose of a circulating system, or whether any other distinct
circulating system exists ; but they have entirely failed in their
endeavours; and I feel assured, that where. such men have
failed, others will not succeed ; and yet their consequent suppo-
sition that the blood is diffused through the general substance
of the body, appears to me very highly improbable. It accords
not with the general character of those means by which nature
usually produces its effects ; there is too little of art and contri-
vance, if | may use such terms, on such an occasion, in the mode
supposed to be employed. Even in the formation of mineral
crystals, which are unorganized bodies, the attraction by which
the component particles are aggregated is regulated by laws
the most systematically framed and observed: and whoever has
yiewed with any attention that wonderful monument of human
industry and sagacity, the Anatomical Museum of John Hunter,
and has there seen the proofs of a sanguineous circulation in
animals of an order so low, that they can hardly be said to have
any specific form or substance, will almost necessarily be dis-
posed to expect a similar provision in a class of animals, whose
general structure is so elaborately and beautifully organized as
that of insects.”

Organs of Respiration.. Ten stigmata are very distinetly visi-
ble on each side of the body. The first in order beginning from
the head is situated very near the lower part of the posterior
ridge of the thorax. This is apparently conneeted with all the
trachez, both of the thorax and the head itself. It differs remark-
ably in size and form from all the rest; for instead of bemg a
mere dot or point, it is an elongated fissure, bounded by two
horny lips. The second stigma, which somewhat resembles in

1826.} ' Philosophical Transactions for 1825, Part IT. 211°

form, though of less extent than the preceding, is situated imme-
diately behind the root of the middle leg; the third, which is
still less than the second, is situated immediately behind the
root of the posterior leg ; from the fourth to the tenth inclusive,
are situated near the terminations of the corresponding dorsal
segments of the abdomen.

The stigmata, taken generally, are not the terminations of
single tubes ; very frequently two and even more trachee origi-
nate from the same stigma; and very soon after the commence-
ment, one or even two of these trachee subdivide into numerous
branches, which follow as nearly as may be the direction of the
original tubes.

“Itis generally understood, that the trachee of insects pene-
trate each organ and every part of the body; and certainly the’
case is such in the instance before us. Thus, in that brush of
capillary yellow tubes supposed to constitute the hepatic system,
the total number of which amounts to 150 or 200, there is reason
to believe that each tube is accompanied by a distinct trachea
coiled round it ina long spiral. Again, the two medullary cords
which connect the several ganglions of the nervous system, are
in their natural state united together by means of the branches
of a tracheal tube which runs between them; a similar tube being
attached to the exterior edge of the cords; and the surface of
what may be called the brain of this insect is as beautifully
characterized by the ramifications of the trachee which pervade
it, as the surface of the pia mater of the human brain by the
blood vessels which penetrate that membrane in every direction.

» In meditating on the difficult problem of the sanguineous
circulation of insects, it has forcibly occurred to me, that the
trachez may possibly be the instruments of such a circulation ;
absorbing the blood or the chyle in the first instance from the
internal surface of the alimentary canal, and thence conveying it
to the various parts of the body; nor is this opinion, however
improbable it may appear, entirely gratuitous. No difficulty, I
apprehend, attaches to the supposition that such an absorption
may take place; seeing that innumerable minute ramifications of
the trachew penetrate the intestinal canal in every part; nor
does there seem any difficulty in admitting that the insect may,

the power of exhausting the airfrom individual trachex, draw
on the absorbed fluid towards those two lateral tracheal tubes,
which are apparently a general medium of communication
between all the other trachee of the body. And when once the
blood has reached this supposed point of its course, it is mani-
fest, that by whatever means the air itself is forwarded from the
same point to the most distant parts of the body, by a modifica-
tion of the same means, the blood may be forwarded to the same
part; and the elegant arity nn of Cuvier, that the blood’

z

212° Analyses of Books. _ [M4rcu,

being incapable of going in search of the air, the air goes in
search of it,” will still remain inviolate. ali

“If it should be argued that the trachee are not found
charged with blood after the death of the animal, it may be
answered, that neither are the arteries in the higher orders of
animals found charged with blood after their death. However,
I have actually seen some of the ramifications of those tracheze
which are connected with the ceca distended with a fluid of the
same colour as that found in those organs; and though I have
only witnessed this fact in two instances ; yet such a fact, even’
singly taken, must be allowed to be of considerable importance.

‘“‘ Of one thing I am certain, that after careful observation, I
have never found the abdominal viscera, I will not say bathed,
as’ some authors of credit have expressed themselves, in the
nutrient fluid which is supposed to have transuded through the
coats of the intestines; but I have not even found them lubri-
cated by a greater proportion of moisture than lubricates the
intestines of the higher classes of animals.

“‘ There is another difficulty which occurs to the hypothesis
of the transudation of the chyle through the coats of the intes-
tines ; for, if the blood be conveyed to the several parts by
previous general diffusion through the interior of the body, and
then by absorption into the substance of particular organs, as’
the hepatic tubes, the vesicule seminales and the ovaries ; how
does it happen that the bile, for instance, does not transude
through the coats of the same vessels, the pores of which have
admitted the blood from which it has been formed? It may be
answered, that the alteration which the blood undergoes in the
several organs changes its properties to such an extent, as to
render it incapable of repassing through the pores which admit-
ted it. I cannot of course presume to say that such is not the
case ; and Jam aware that many entomologists will be surprised
at, and perhaps disinclined to listen to, the opinion here advanced
with respect to a sanguineous circulation in insects; but I
nevertheless hope that the opinion will not be rejected without
some previous attention to it. With regard to the dorsal vessel:
of the gryllotalpa, which in this, as in other insects, has been
supposed to stand in the place of an arterial heart, I have very)
few observations to offer. It does not agree in its form with the
description commonly given of this mysterious organ; for
though it diminishes in diameter as it approaches the head, this
is by no means the case towards the other extremity of it. I
have not yet completely succeeded in tracing this vessel to its
anterior extremity ; because as it approaches its termination in
that direction, it becomes so delicate as to have hitherto broken
under dissection before I arrived at the extremity of it. Towards.
the opposite extremity, it gradually becomes larger from the

1826.] Philosophical-Transactions for 1825, Part IT. 213

centre of the body, and terminates apparently in a cul de sac
about the last segment but two of the abdomen.”

_ Dr. Kidd next describes the muscles and nerves of the gryllo-
talpa, the latter arising from a series of nine ganglions; and he

ives the following account of the brain.

. “ The brain differs in colour from the ganglions, being of a
pale brownish pink, instead of a cream colour, and in size it far
exceeds the largest of the ganglions. It consists of two hemi-
spheres, separated by a fissure, from each of which pass out four
processes: the first of these processes unites as above described,
with a process from the ninth ganglion, to form the nervous
collar of the esophagus; the second passes to the root of the
antenna; the third, which may be called the optic nerve, passes
towards the inner surface of the cornea; and at its extremity
swells out into a fringed coronet of an orange red colour; the
fourth process, the extremity of which is also of an orange red
colour, proceeds to the ocellus or stemma ofthe corresponding side.

“ The upper surface of the brain is covered by a mass of soft
substance somewhat resembling loose fat.”

The paper is concluded with an account of the generative
organs of each sex, some observations on the casting of the skin,
and on the organ of sound, and the dimensions of the full-grown
mole-cricket.

» “ The Sexual Organs of the Female. These organs consist o.
two ovaries, which occupy a considerable portion of the upper
part of the abdomen, and terminate by a narrow duct in a coms
mon cavity or uterus, which opens externally under the posterior
edge of the last segment but one of the ventral surface of the
abdomen. Behind the uterus is an oblong white body, which,
originating from a cul de sac, and then doubling on itself in the
form of a slender tube, terminates in the uterus. The contents
of this body resemble a thin white paste. The ovaries are irre-
gularly pear-shaped, and consist of a transparent membrane
irregularly convoluted, through which the ova, enveloped ina
gelatinous medium, are easily distinguished. In the same
ovary the ova are frequently of different sizes and colours ; those
which are the largest, and which I suppose to be impregnated,
are of a brownish yellow colour ; they resist a considerable
degree of force before they burst, and the contents when pressed
out melt as it were into a soft jelly, leaving a tough membrane
which enveloped them, The smaller ova are of various sizes
and of nearly a white colour, and of a much more slender and
compressed form than those which I have supposed to be im-
pregnated. ‘his difference in the degree of maturation corre-
sponds with a fact stated by Rosel, that the mole-cricket does
not deposit all the eggs of the season at one time. In a few
instances I found two or three ova which had entered the nar-
rowest part of the duct, and were very near the uterus ; and
from the appearance of these, which may fairly be supposed to

214 Analyses of Books. ‘ (Maren,

be, if not impregnated, at least in a state fit for impregnation, I
have ventured to derive the character of the impregnated ovum,
_“ The Sexual Organs of the Male, 1 had dissected several
male gryllotalpe before I was fortunate enough to meet with the
sexual organs fully developed; and while I had as yet met
with only one animal bearing the character of full developement,
I was not certain whether I judged rightly of the natural state
of those parts ; or whether their uncommon degree of enlarge-
ment were not the effect of disease—the disproportion in size
between the state in which they had hitherto occurred, and that
to which I now allude is so enormous. However, subsequent
dissections presenting the same phenomena, I have no scruple

in considering them as indicating full developement. uted

“< The testicles of the male are situated similarly to the ovaries
of the female, and are not very unlike in general appearance to:
the ovaries of young females; they differ however in being
divided pretty deeply into several unequal lobes, the free extre-
mities of which look towards each other.. They send out each a
very fine capillary tube or duct; which, descending towards the
rectum, is in one part of its passage convoluted on itself so as
to resemble the human epididymis partially unravelled.

“The excretory duct above described terminates at the bot-
tom of a thick pouch, which is situated between the rectum and
the ventral integuments, and in form is not very unlike, though
larger than the uterus, opening externally, as the uterus does,
under the posterior margin of the last but. one of the ventral
segments of the abdomen. . » sh

. “ The interior mechanism of this pouch is extremely curious ;
for in the upper part there is contained an apparatus somewhat;
in the shape ofa coronet, of the colour and hardness of tortoise-.
shell; and at right angles to the centre of this there is fitted a
similarly hard and horny substance (in shape resembling a short,
flat club), which descends towards the external opening of the

ouch.

“‘ Behind the pouch are situated one on each side, two oblong
white bodies, which are twisted into three spiral coils, and then
terminate by an inflected tube at the upper and back part of the
pouch, These bodies evidently answer to the yesicule semi-
nales of insects in general; and resemble in their external
character, and in their white pulpy contents, that oval body
which is placed.at the back ofthe uterus, There is also another
pair, of vesiculz seminales, as is frequently the case in insects,
situated exteriorly to the former ; more slender in form, also and
much more convoluted, which apparently terminate near the
points where the ducts of the testicles terminate. In the.
instances of full developement these bodies are enlarged to six
times their usual size, Under the circumstances of full deve-
lopement there is also found, though scarcely perceptible under
imperfect developement, a large spherical mass, resembling a.

1826.]) ) Philosophical Transactions for 1825, Part Il. 216

all of cider down, situated immediately at the anterior edge
of the pouch above described, and continued on from its
substance.

_ “ The examination of the mole-cricket has added, as appears
from the description of the parts, another exception in the case
-of the female as well as the male, to the general statement, that
in insects the sexual organs pass out by the anus. Cuvier men-
tions, as the only exceptions to this law, the Juli and Libellule.

< Dimensions of a full-grown Mole-cricket.

‘Length of the body from the extremity of the lip to the Inches.
extremity of the vent ....cecesecsecenovscsssssses 20
Length of the head. 0.2... ccc s i ccc ese sen ees eeeeees 0165
neerens thoracic division. .....scecccerseseeees OS
— abdominal division........eeeeeeeeeee 133
Breadth of the thorax. ...ccccsesesssevcsesovsvsses

— AbdoMeDs.....iiics seb osd debe ctswuwed
Length of the antennz of the head ......eseeeeeeeees
——_-—_—_——— caudal antenne .......cccccceeceeeves
whole alimentary canal.......eeeeeeees

EBOPHAGUB vb sisisbisie's SWE STEN wee dees
Length from the crop to the great intestine ..........6.
Length of the great intestine..........eeeee0. eeiaeee D038

_ XI. Further Observations on Planarie. By J. R. Johnson,
MD.FRS. (See Annals for April, 1825.)

XII. On the Influence of NEHGS and Ganglions in producing
“Animal Heat. By Sir Everard Home, Bart. VPRS. (Commu-
nicated by the Society for the Improvement of Animal‘ Che-
Mistry.)

XIII. An Essay on Egyptian Mummies ; with Observations on
the Art of Embalming among the Ancient Egyptians. By A. B.
Granville, MD. FRS. &c. ;
_ The problem of the method really pursued by the ancient
Egyptians in the preparation of their mummies, which has so
long been an opprobrium Antiquariorum, appears to have been
completely solved by Dr. Granville. We have already given
some notice (see Annals for June, 1825), of his researches on the
subject detailed in this paper, from which, as introductory to the
extracts subjoined, our readers will acquire a correct knowledge
ofthe principal results of the investigation. We commence with
the external appearances of the mummy which Dr. G. dissected.

“ The mamme must have been large during life; for they were
found to extend as low down as the seventh rib, against which
they are closely pressed by the arms passing over them. But
on lifting the latter, the breasts themselves were raised with
little exertion. Of these organs there remain, of course, little
More than the integuments, which are of considerable thickness,
and exhibit the nipples with their surrounding areole in a per-
fectly distinct manner. .

Senwooso

216 «© 2 Analyses of Books... [Manren,

“« The head is closely shaved ; the short hair,:»which is of a
brown eolour, can be felt on passing the hand over it; «and on
close inspection may be distinctly seen. Externally the cranium
appears not to have been disturbed in any way. The eyelids
were in close contact. The nose has been flattened down
towards the right cheek by the action of the bandages. The
lips, from being retracted, allow the teeth of the upper and
lower jaw to be seen, perfectly white, and in a sound condition.
The arms are crossed over the chest, the fore arms directed
obliquely upwards, towards the extremities of the shoulders.
The fingers of the left hand alone were bent inwardly, the
thumb remaining extended.”

“ Following up my description of the external appearances of
our mummy, I have to remark that the inferior extremities were
brought together in close contact at the knees and feet, which
latter. were kept in that position by a contrivance similar to that
which obtains to this yery day in most parts of Europe, of
fastening. the two great toes by means of a piece of rag or tape.

«« Numerous and deep wrinkles appeared on the integuments
of the abdomen, denoting that before death, this part of the body
must have had very considerable dimensions ; a conjecture, the
correctness of which subsequent inquiries have completely
demonstrated. ice |

“The general surface of the body is of a deep brown colour,
approaching to black, and is quite dry. In parts where the
larger muscles lie, as the thighs for instance, the surface feels
quite soft to the touch, and the muscles yield slightly to pres-
sure. The cuticle appears to have been removed throughout,
except at the extreme points of the fingers and toes, where it
can yet be seen curled up, retaining the nails, of a deep brown
colour, in their situation, Some of these, however, quitted their
fastening when the slightest attempt was made to detach them,”

Feet. In.

“ Height of the mummy from the vertex of the head
to the inferior surface of the calcaneum ,......... 5 O-%)

Thus divided.

Length of the head from the vertex to the first vertebra
ef the meth .uF sei ta's hist e shite Bible late bin <ol> Fipple eee arma

femur to the centre of the knee pan..........+.+- 1

5
to the inferior surface of the calcaneum. ..,...+-.. 1 335

ooo

Total 5 Ovi

1826.[° Philosophical Transactions for 1825, Part II. 217

« The dimensions of the upper extremities and of the foot,

Beiho ey Feet.. In.
Length of the arm ....ssecceecseseeseese 1 Iu Lg ¢
- Bee WoL es cued rmate rae th tae
. - of the hand from the tip of the middle ~

finger, to the articulation at the wrist.... 0 7
og A i ak | te fg

“ Now we find, on comparing the principal of these dimen-
sions with those of the Venus de Medicis, as given by Winkel-
man, Camper, and others, that the difference between them is
‘so slight, as not to deserve notice. Our mummy is that of a
person rather taller. The celebrated Medicean statue, which
stands as the representative of a perfect beauty, is five feet in
height, like our mummy, and the relative admeasurements of the
‘arm, fore-arm, and hand in each, are precisely similar.

~ “But in a female skeleton, it is the pelvis that presents the
most striking difference in different races. Nothing, for instance,
can be further removed from the symmetrical form, and from the
dimensions of the pelvis in the Caucasian or European race,
‘than the same part in the Negro or Ethiopian race. Of this
fact, I shall be able to convince such of the Fellows of this
‘Society, as are not conversant in these matters, by exhibiting
the most perfect pelvis of a well grewn Negro girl, which I pre-
pared some years ago, in contrast with that of our mummy,
which I likewise carefully dissected. "When subjected to this
‘comparative test, the pelvis of our female mummy will be found
to come nearer to the beau idéal of the Caucasian structure, than
‘does that of women of Europe in general, and to equal in depth,
‘amplitude, and rotundity of outlines, the Circassian form.

- “Tn illustration of this remark, I made the following mea-
surements.

In,

Greatest distance or width of the pelvis from the highest

point of the ridge of the ilium on one side, to that of

Pe UNE a pian iad piidide Aidt wae ham nee eine. deans dee
Distance between the two anterio-superior spinous pro-
RM, OE TIME TEE o's ooo. chonore: dip nin, #.ain eliisald> din nsmcim well
Distance between the tuberosities of the ischium. ...... 3
Elevation of the branches of the ischium to join the

descending branches of the pubis, and form the sub-

RN ATG ia actin thst a Rasa cna diniol inltinh i pichi tei ubleielh <i), 0
Greatest elevation of the os innominatum or haunch bone,

from the tubera of the ischium to the highest point of
BoM ETeSt OF ENC AA 5 cnn nabiesin surn-o nn mneidinininats siete ie

218 5 Analyses of Books. \[Marei,
‘ _ . © Diameter of the pelvis.

Transverse, or bi-iliac diameter .........sceeecseceees OTS
Anterio-posterior, or sacro-pubian diameter ............ 4°55
Oblique, or sacro-ilio-cotyloid diameter ...0.ssseseevbe. 5°25,

‘¢ Not only are these the most perfect dimensions. which a
female pelvis ‘can have, but they are precisely in the proportion
which the longest diameter bears to the shortest, in the Venus
of the Florentine Gallery, according to Camper, namely, as 46
to 34; whereas in the Negro or Ethiopian race, the proportion
is 39 to 271, or what amounts to the same thing, the longest
diameter of the pelvis of the Negro girl above-mentioned is only
&,2. inches, while the shortest is no more than 3.8 inches, In
this respect my admeasurements agree with those given by
Soemmering. ene ;
. What has just been observed of the skeleton generally, and
of the pelvis in particular, applies with equal force to the form
and dimensions of the head. So far from having any trait of
Ethiopian character in it, this part of our mummy exhibits a
formation in no way differing from the European. i

‘On looking at the Plate which represents with scrupulous
accuracy the contour of the head of the natural size, it is impos-
sible not to be struck with the likeness it bears to the skull of
the Georgian female represented in the “ Decas tertia Cranio-
rum” of Blumenbach’s very instructive collection. In both we
have the facial angle approaching nearly to a right angle; and
the configuration of the vertex and occiput in each is such, as
must attract attention for its elegance, and the indication of a
something more important than mere beauty.

_ “It may be affirmed then, that Cuvier’s opinion respecting
the Caucasian origin of the Egyptians, founded on his examina-
tion of upwards of fifty heads of mummies, is corroborated by
the preceding observations ; and that the systems which were
founded on the Negro form, are destroyed by almost all the
récent, and certainly the most accurate investigations of this
interesting subject. It isa curious fact, which has been noticed
by more than one traveller, that whole families are to be found
in Upper Egypt, in whom the general character of the head and
face strongly resembles that of the best mummies discovered in
the hypogei of Thebes; and not less so, the human figures
represented in the ancient monuments ofthat country.”

«« An incision having been made inte the parietes of the abdo-
men, just below the ribs, and continued down to the hip bone,
on both:sides, and carried along the margin of the pubis, the
whole of the integuments and muscles were removed, so as to
expose that cavity completely to view. The objects which then
presented themselves were a’ portion of the stomach adlrering to

Je

1826)" |Philosophical Transactions for 1825, Part II. 219

the diaphragm, the spleen much reduced in size and flattened,
attached to the super-renal capsule of the left kidney, and the
left kidney itself, imbedded in, but not adhering to the latter,
and retaining its ureter, which descended into the bladder. This,
as well as the uterus and its appendages, were observed in situ,
exhibiting strong marks of havimg been in a diseased state for
some time previously to the death of the individual. Fragments
only.of the intestinal tube could be found, some of them of con-
siderable dimensions, and among them part of the cecum, with
its vermiform appendix, and portions of the ilium. Several
large pieces of the peritoneal membrane were likewise observed.”
_ ‘* The cavity of the abdomen being emptied of allits contents,
vJcontinued the circular incision back to the spine, which I
divided at the first lumbar vertebra. I next sawed off the
thighs a few inches from the hip, and dissected carefully all the
soft parts from the pelvis, so as to ascertain the condition and
dimensions of this important part of the female skeleton. In
performing this last operation, which occupied me two hours a
day: for nearly a week (some medical or scientific friends being
present at each sitting), we could not help being struck with the
remarkable degree of preservation of the muscles, such as had
never before been noticed in Egyptian mummies, and such as
to admit of their being separated from one another, as readily
as in the dissection of a recent subject. Nor was the perfect
condition of the articulatory membranes and ligaments less
Surprising, which allowed us to impart to the great articulation
of the thigh with the ilium, its various movements, a circum-
| ratty seldom observed, even in modern preparations of the
pelvis.
- © The cavity of the thorax was next examined, and this I
effected without disturbing the anterior portions of the ribs or
breast bone, by simply detaching the diaphragm all round, and
bringing it away. It was found that the pericardium, which
adhered partially to the diaphragm, came away with it, and that
a laceration had taken place at the same time in that sac.

. “This circumstance denoting that the heart was present, I
introduced my hand: to remove it, when it was found suspended,
iu situ, by its large blood vessels, in a very contracted state,
attached to the lungs by its natural connexions with them. The
latter organs adhered throughout their posterior surface to the
ribs, and were brought away altogether in as perfect a state as
could be effected.

“ The last cavity examined was that of the cranium ; for this
purpose it was sawed in two; horizontally, and when thus
Opened, it was ascertained that the brain had been removed
through the nostrils; the plates of the inner nasal bones having
been destroyed in the operation by the instrument employed, as
evidenced by the state of those parts. It is a matter of no little
surprise how, under circumstances of so much. difliculty, the

22002 ‘Analysis of Books.” [Marci

operators could have contrived to. remove every:vestige of the
membranes investing the brain, one of which is known to adhere
firmly in most subjects to the inner surface of the superior
cranial bones. There can scarcely be a doubt but that some
injection had been thrown into the cavity in question, to clear
it out in so perfect a manner; for no instrument could have
effected such.a purpose. A black resinous substance, but. ina
small quantity, was found adhering to the inner surface of the
occipital bone, which must have been thrown in quite hot,.as it
had penetrated through, and burnt partially, the superior part.of
the lambdoidal suture through which the liquid escaped, so as
to be now seen extravasated under the scalp. But how this
liquid resin was thrown in, and for what purpose, it is not easy
to conjecture. It could only have been made to penetrate
through the opening which had previously been made in the
ethmoid bone, to extract the brain; and if so, it is difficult to
conceive in what manner it was made to reach the spot it now
occupies without having adhered to any other intermediate por-~
tion of the cranium. It was remarked, at the time of opening
the head, that its inner surface was studded with small crystals
of what appeared to be an animal substance, resembling steatine.

“‘ The last observation [ have to make on the structural con-
dition of this mummy, refers to the state of the eyes, which
appear not to have been disturbed; and to the state of the
mouth, which was as carefully examined as circumstances
would admit, without destroying the contour and _ general
appearance of the face. The tongue is preserved, and neither
above nor below it. was there found any coin or piece of metal,
as recorded of some of the mummies, but a lump of rags dipped
in pitch. The teeth, as I before remarked, are perfectly white
and intact; nor did I observe that peculiar cylindrical form of
the incisores which has been assumed by some naturalists, as
one of the characters of the head in the Ethiopian race.”

The following is Dr. Granville’s account of the process fol-

lowed by the Egyptian artists in the preparation of a mummy ;
as deduced by him with great accuracy, from the results of his
examination of the specimen just described.
_ “ A, Immediately after death the body was committed to the
care of the embalmers, when, in the majority of cases, the
viscera of the abdomen, either wholly, or partially, were forth-
with removed ; in some cases through an incision on the one
side of the abdomen, as stated by Herodotus, and as proved by
some of the mummies examined ; and in others through the
anus, in which latter case, the extremity of the rectum was pre-
viously disengaged from its attachments all round by the knife,
and the intestines imperfectly extracted. The cavity of the
thorax in the most perfect specimens was not disturbed.

‘«« B. The head was emptied, in all instances, of its contents,
either through the nostrils, by breaking through the superior

1826.]> Philosophical Transactions for 1825, Part IT. 22h

nasal bones, asin the instance under our consideration, as well
as in that of the head from Tripoli, already mentioned, or
through one of the orbits, the eyes being previously taken out,
and artificial ones substituted in their place, after the operation,
as in the instances’of the mummies examined by Sir E. Home
and Mr. Brodie. ‘The cavity of the cranium was repeatedly
washed out by injections with some fluid, which had the power
of not only bringing away every vestige of the substance of the
brain, but even of the enveloping membranes of it. Yet the
liquid could not have been of a corrosive nature, else the tento-
rium, or that membranous floor which supports the brain, must
have disappeared with the meninges; ‘whereas it is still in
existence, and does not appear to have been in the least injured.
A-small quantity. of hot liquid rosin was then injected into the
cranium.

““C. The next step taken in the embalming process was to
cover the body with quick lime for a few hours, and after to
rub the surface of it with a blunt knife, or some such instrument
as would most effectually assist in removing the cuticle. The
scalp, however, does not appear to have been touched ; and
care was taken also not to expose the root of the nails to the
action of the alkali, as it was intended that these should remain
in all cases. In the mummy I have described, this point has
been so much attended to by the embalmers, that the nail of the
principal toe of the right foot having been detached, it was
replaced and retained in its position by three or four turns of
thread passed around it ; and in this state it must have conti-
nued for the last thirty centuries.

QD. The operation of removing the cuticle being accom-
plished, the body was immersed into a capacious vessel, con-
taining a liquefied mixture of wax and resin, the former predo-
minating; and some sort of bituminous substance being added,
not however essential to the process. In this situation the body
was suffered to remain a certain number of days over a gentle
fire, with the avowed intention of allowing the liquefied mixture
to penetrate the innermost and minutest structure; nor can
there exist any doubt, but that on this part of the embalming

rocess depended not only its great preservative power, but also
its various degrees of perfection. Thus, when the process was
properly managed and watched, mummies, such as the one
under consideration, would be produced ; whereas when neg-
lected or slovenly conducted, the mummy resulting from it
would present those appearances of dryness, blackness, and
brittleness, together with the carbonification of the muscles and
intimate adherence of the integuments to the bones, which have
‘been noticed by Dr. Hadley, Professor Gmelin, Blumenbach,
Hanter, Dr, Baillie, Mr. Brodie, Jomard, and others, when they
examined imperfect or inferior mummies. The fraudulent
subtraction of the allotted quantity of wax equired for the prin-

992) Analyses of Books. TM awenj

cipal and important part of the embalming process we are now
considering, or the neglecting to regulate the fire in using the
wax and bitumen, would necessarily give rise to the latter
results, which the covering bandages were sure to hide from
the eye of the surviving relatives to whom the body was to be
returned. It is also fair to presume, that inability or unwilling-
ness on the part of friends and relatives to pay for the ingredients
or for the labour necessary to carry on the operations just
described, have, on many occasions, been the cause of mummies
being prepared in that imperfect manner which has been noticed
in sO many Instances. ‘t

««E. When the body was taken out of the warm liquid mix-
ture, every part of it must have been in a very soft and supple
condition, wholly unsusceptible of putrefaction. The next steps
therefore to be taken with a view to convert it into a perfect
mummy, must have been those which, had they been taken
before that part of the process that has been just described,
would have exposed the body to inevitable putrefaction, in a
climate like that of Egypt. 1 allude to the tanning of the inte-
guments, and the exposing of their surface to the additional
influence of those salts, the presence of which, as well as that of
tannin, [ have most clearly demonstrated. boiton

«« Whether an infusion of the vegetable astringent employed
for tanning the integuments was had recourse to in the first
instance, and the immersion of the body into the concentrated

water of the natron lakes followed, or whether the tanning liquid |

was itself made by infusing the vegetable astringents themselves
in the water of the natron lakes, and the body then immersed
ito it, are questions, which it is neither possible nor important
to decide ; the body was unquestionably submitted to the ope~
ration of both those means, but in what order it is difficult to
ascertain; and when the embalmers judged by the condition of
the integuments, that they were sufticiently impregnated with

the active principles employed, the body was allowed to dry for
Is p Pp , mY: “

a few hours, and then the bandages previously prepared with a
solution of tannin also, as proved by my experiments, were
applied to the different parts, beginning with each separate
limb. otrity

“While the operation of bandaging took place, the mummy
must have been in a very supple state, else the numerous deep
longitudinal wrinkles observed in all those parts where the inte-
guments are generally looser, as in the upper part of the thighs
and arms, as well as over the abdomen, and at the breasts, could
not have existed. These wrinkles, so well marked in the Plate,
must have been produced by the bandages at the time of their
application.

“Tt appears also, that with a view of rendering the bandages»
more supple in particular places, where such a condition was”

required, and of obviating the inconvenience of slackness in

1826.] | Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. £98

some of the turns, they were daubed over in a few places with
two different substances, the one consisting of wax and resin;
the other of resin alone, both applied warm; so that, while the
first served to give pliancy to some of the linen employed, the
second caused the slack and loose edges of the bandages to
adhere together, by which process’ the whole was rendered
compact and firm, without producing hardness.

“The lumps of myrrh, resin, and bituminous earth, noticed in
the abdomen, were pushed up through the enlarged aperture of
the anus, immediately before the application of the bandages,
for the purposes already detailed.” BE. W. Bie

; (To be continued.)

ArTIcLE XII.
Proceedings of Philosophical Societies.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

Jan. 26 (continued).—A paper was read, On the Barometer;
by J. F. Daniell, Esq. FRS.

The author, referring to some former papers which he had
presented to the Society, supplies the deficiency, which he therein
regretted, of evidence of the gradual deterioration of barometers,
from registers which had been continued for a sufficient length
of time, with the same instruments, to establish the fact. From
the Transactions of the Meteorological Society of the Palatinate,
he has now extracted the mean annual heights of the mercurial
column at eight different stations in Europe, for twelve succes-
sive years, and dividing them into periods of six years each, he
has shown that the averages of the last six are invariably lower
than those of the first six. He has also made another remark,
Which, he observes, might have been anticipated from theory,
that the amount of the depression depends, in some measure,
upon the elasticity of the medium in which the instrument is

laced. The five series of observations, whose mean pressure is
29235 inches, exhibit an average depression of ‘059 inch in
twelve years ; while the three series, whose mean pressure is
25°977 inches, present a depression of only *026 inch in the
same interval.. . ;

From the same Transactions an extract is also made of some
observations of Hemmer, strongly corroborative of the opinion,
that the air gains access to the vacuum by means of the glass
and not of the mercury.
_ Mr. Daniell proceeds to state, that the results of the experi-
ments which he has instituted with the platinum guard are satis-
factory, as far as there has been time for their developement. In

224 Proceedirigs of Philosophical Societies. [MARctH,

a comparison which he has lately had an opportunity of making
with some fresh-boiled barometers of Prof. Schumacher, his
own guarded barometer, which has been made about fifteen
months, and was formerly in perfect accordance with the Royal
Society’s standard, agreed perfectly with the new instruments,
but stood higher than the standard; and this result was confirmed
by a comparison with another barometer belonging to Mr. New-
man. The «author remarks that it is true the difference of ‘006
inch is but small, but that the depression is as much as could
have been expected, and that the whole number of observations
being consistent gives weight to the conclusion.

Mr. D. next brings forward some highly curious observations of
Dr. Priestley, which not only confirm his own opinions, but esta-
blish the accuracy of Mr. Faraday’s observations upon the escape
of gases from glass vessels, in which he had attempted to confine
them by mercury, and their preservation by water, under similar
circumstances, which the author remarks, has been very unneces-
sarily called in question. Dr. Priestley found, in his experiments
upon air, that when he was operating with mercury, atmospheric
air obtained admission into his jars even when there was an inch
of mercury on the outside, and.a column of two or three inches
within ; and heremarks that thisis owing to there being no complete
contact between mercury and glass, and that the air which is
confined between the two is continually protruded forward by
the vibrations of the vessel. He also observed that when alittle
water was placed upon the outside of the jar upon the mercury,
that neither air nor water ever got in to disturb his experiments.
_ The paper concluded with a brief and connected view of the
author’s observations upon the barometer derived from the pre-
sent communication, and from two former papers, which, he
observes, the Council have done him the honour to place amongst
their archives, from which it appears that he has established the
following facts :-—

1. That air gradually insinuates itself into the best made
barometers of the common construction.

2. That this does not take place from any solution of the air
by mercury. ;

3. That the passage of the air is between the mercury and the

lass.

4. That the gradual deterioration of barometers may be pre-
vented by a ring of platinum cemented to the open end of the
tube.

Feb. 2.—A paper was read, On the Magnetizing Power of
the more refrangible Rays of Light ; by Mrs. Mary Somerville :
communicated by William Somerville, MD. FRS.

- In this paper, Mrs. Somerville first mentions some preceding
statements on the subject: Prof. Morichini, of Rome, announced
that he had succeeded in magnetizing a needle by exposing it to

1826): © © | Royal'Society. 295

the violet ray of the solar spectrum; the experiment ‘was
repeated, without success, by Prof. Configliachi at Pavia, and
Mw Berard, at Montpellier; Dr. Brewster states, in his Treatise
on New Philosophical Instruments, that Sir H. Davy and the
late Prof. Playfair witnessed a successful repetition of it in
Jtaly ; but from the indistinct and contradictory results that had
‘been obtained even in,that country, it had been concluded that
the experiment was still more unlikely to succeed in our own
northern climate, and no further elucidation of the subject had
been obtained.

The unusual clearness of the weather, however, last summer,
had induced Mrs. S. to institute some experiments on the sub-
ject; which she next proceeds to detail.

An equiangular prism of flint-glass being placed in an aperture
in a window-shutter, a sewing needle, about an inch long, which
had been previously ascertained to be devoid of magnetism by
its attracting indifferently either pole of a magnetized needle,*
was exposed to the violet ray of the spectrum, thrown on a
pannel, at the distance of about five feet. One half of the needle
was covered with paper, as the author did not deem it likely
that polarity would ensue from the action of the light, if the
whole of the needle were uniformly exposed to its influence. In
about two hours, the needle became magnetized, the exposed
end being found to be the north pole. The experiment having
been many times repeated with the violet ray, and always with
success, the blue and green rays of the spectrum were next
ascertained to produce a similar effect, but in a less degree, and
the indigo ray in a degree nearly as great as the violet. The
yellow, orange, and red rays had no effect whatever on the nee-
dles exposed to them, even when the experiments were conti-
nued for three successive days; nor was any magnetism deve-
loped by the calorific rays, which showed that heat had no share
in causing the results.

_ Pieces of clock and watch-springs, about an inch and a half
long, and from an eighth to.a quarter of an inch in width, pre-
viously ascertained to be unmagnetic, or reduced to that state
by heating them, were exposed in the same manner to the more
refrangible rays, and they also were rendered magnetic, the
Fr posed ends always becoming north poles. They appeared
indeed tobe more susceptible of magnetization than the needles,
probably on account of their greater extent of surface and blue
colour. Bodkins were not affected, owing, perhaps, to their
greater mass. When the violet ray was concentrated by means
of the large lens employed by Dr. Wollaston in his experiments

__* The magnetic needle employed for this purpose was also a sewing needle, which,
after it had been magnetized in the usual way, was driven through a cork in which a
glass cap was inserted; and it was then suspended, so as to revolve freely, on the |
‘point of another sewing needle. :

New Series, vow, XI. Q

226 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [Manew,

on the chemical rays, magnetism was imparted to steel in a shorter
time than by that ray inits ordinary state.

It was found to be unnecessary to darken the room for these
experiments, it being sufficient to throw the spectrum on a part
of the room where the sun’s rays did not shine.

Mrs. Somerville next tried the effect of the solar rays as
transmitted by blue glass; and on needles being exposed, half
covered as before, under glass coloured blue by cobalt, care
being taken that no magnetic substance was present, they also
were magnetized. It was not ascertained whether the rays
which produce chemical charges had any share in this effect ;
for by subjecting two slips of paper, dipped in solution of mu-
riate of silver, to the action of the sun’s rays under the blue and
under common white glass, both were blackened in the same
time and to the same degree. Needles exposed in the same
manner under green glass were also magnetized.

By inclosing needles in pieces of green and blue riband, half
of each being covered with paper, and hanging them up in the
sun for a day, behind a window-pane, they likewise acquired
polarity ; the exposed ends becoming north-poles as usual. But
no effect was produced, by the same treatment, on needles
inclosed in red, orange, or yellow silk.

Throughout the experiments detailed in this paper, with a
very few exceptions, seemingly attributable to a predisposition
to magnetism too slight to be detected, the exposed end of the
needle, &c. employed, became the north-pole. From ten to
twelve and one o’clock appeared to be the most favourable time
for the experiments. As the season advanced, the magnetism
acquired was less permanent, or the needle required expo-
sure for a longer period to render it permanent, and the effect in
general decreased. The author infers from the whole, that the
more refrangible rays of light have the property of imparting
magnetism.

The reading was also commenced of a paper, On the Action
of Sulphuric Acid upon Naphthaline; by M. erin f Esq. FRS.

Feb. 9.—James Holman, Esq. was admitted a Fellow of the
Society; and the reading of Mr. Faraday’s paper was continued.

Feb. 16.—Charles Lyell, Esq. FL. and GS. and Dr. J. A. Ogle
were respectively admitted Fellows of the Society, the name of
John Hawkins, Esq. ordered. to be inserted in its printed lists
and the reading of Mr. Faraday’s paper was concluded.

In consequence of the peculiar action of sulphuric acid upon
certain hydrocarbons, observed by the author, and referred to in
a late paper on New Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen,* he
was led to examine the effect produced by treating various sub-
stances with sulphuric acid, and amongst others, naphthaline,
It was soon found that'a new compound was produced, very
peculiar in its composition and properties, the existence of

* See Annals for January, p, 48.

;

1826.) - 2049) ‘Royal Society. 207

Which accounted for the different statements made by various
writers respecting the mutual action of the two substances.
© Oold pulverized naphthaline having been put into three or four
parts of cold concentrated sulphuric acid, and agitated and left for
several days, was gradually dissolved, forming a red mixture ofa
erystalline and a fluid matter, which, upon the addition of water,
dissolved almost entirely, yielding a solution of a peculiar, bitter,
acid taste.
- Upon fusing about two parts of naphthaline with one part of
strong sulphuric acid in a flask, and agitating them together,
a perfect mixture was obtained, but which on standing sepa~
rated, whilst fluid, into two portions, both deep-red, but the
heavier much more so than the lighter. Being poured into
tubes, retained hot for some time to admit of separation, and
then allowed to cool, both substances crystallized, and became
opaque and deep-red. Being separated they were examined ;
€ upper was crystalline, and hard like naphthaline ; it was
sapid; and being heated with a little water, was separated into
nearly pure naphthaline which floated, and an acid which dis-
solved in the water : the lower substance was much heavier than
the former, softer, crystalline, deep-red in colour; exposed to the
air it became moist on the surface from the commencement of de-
liquescence, and then harsh from the separation of naphthaline.
Tt was highly bitter, and burnt in the air with much flame.
‘When rubbed with water, about a fourth part of its weight of
naphthaline separated, the rest being soluble, and similar to that
extracted from the lighter substance.
Upon neutralizing some of this acid with potash, and digesting
the salt formed with alcohol, it was found that the alcohol upon
evaporation left a white, dry, and crystalline salt, which, when
heated in the air, burnt with much flame, and which, being solu-
ble in alcohol, and not precipitating salts of barytes and lead,
was strongly distinguished from a sulphate.
© Tn this way it appeared that sulphuric acid and naphthaline
might be combined producing a new acid, which, as it existed
in large quantities in the heavier substance, mixed with free sul-
phurie acid, was now to be separated from it, and obtained in a
tant state. For this purpose a specimen of native carbonate of
tytes was selected, and rubbed to powder with the solution
of the impure acid until it had beenrendered neutral; the water
was found to contain a soluble barytic salt, and upon washing
the solid residue at the bottom of the mortar with more water, an ad-
ditional portion of the same salt was obtained, the sulphate of ba-
rytes and excess of carbonate remaining untouched. The barytic
saltin solution was now decomposed by the addition of such quan-
tity of sulphuric acid as would precipitate all the barytes and leave
iio excess, so that by filtration a solution of the new acid was
obtained, ‘It was colourless and “gee ia did not precipitate
Q

228 Proceedings of Philosophical Socteties: [Mancn,

salts of lead or barytes, and being carefully evaporated, gave
ultimately a solid crystalline acid, deliquescing in the cold air,
fusing at 212°; by a higher heat, charring and burning with
much dense flame.

The salts which this acid forms with bases are all soluble in
water and in alcohol; the solutions upon evaporation yield the
white salt in amore or less crystalline state, generally unchange-
able in the air, when decomposed by heat in tubes giving off
much naphthaline and vapour, and leaving a mixture of sulphate
and sulphuret. When heated in the air on platinum foil, they
burn with much dense flame, almost like naphthaline.

The analytical experiments were made with the salt of barytes,
it being a very constant and permanent substance, capable of
being dried perfectly by a heat of 212°, and not undergoing
material decomposition below 500°. The quantity of barytes
in the salt was ascertained by burning a given weight in a
platinum crucible, and heating the residue twice or thrice with
the addition of sulphuric acid; the sulphate of barytes indicated
the quantity of barytes present. The quantity of sulphuric acid
present was ascertained by mixing a given weight of the salt
with carbonate of barytes-and oxide of copper, heating the mix-
ture to redness in a tube, then acting on the residue by nitro-
muriatic acid: collecting the quantity of sulphate of barytes
thus produced, it indicated the proportion of sulphuric acid. The
carbon and the hydrogen were estimated in the usual way by
heating the salt with oxide of copper. By this analysis the
elements of the salt approximate closely to

1 proportional of barytes......00.+++ 78
2 ditto sulphuric acid. .....0seeeee2- 80
20 ditto carbon. .....ssesseeccsecees 120
8 ditto hydrogen .s.cek vee seeveese 8

Abstracting the barytes, the remaining elements indicate the
composition of the pure acid, which thus appears to contain
above thiee-fifths of hydrocarbon; and in this state of combina-
tion, the powers of the sulphuric acid are so far reduced or
neutralized by the presence of the hydrocarbon as to have the
saturating power of one proportional only, though two propor-
tionals are present—a fact also previously observed by Mr. Hen-
nel, in the substance called sulphovinous acid.

The name of Sulpho-naphthalic acid has been given to this
compound, as sufficiently indicating its source and nature, with-
out involving theoretical views. '

A paper, On the Circle of Nerves which connectthe Voluntary
Muscles with the Brain; by Charles Bell, Esq. FRSE, commu-
nicated by the President, was also read.

Feb. 23.-—A paper was read, entitled “ An Account of a new
Reflecting Curve ; with its Application in the Construction of a

1826.) Astronomical Society. 999

Telescope having only one Reflector;” by Abram Robertson,
DD. FRS. Savilian Professor of Astronomy, Oxford.

Also a paper, On the Constitution of the Atmosphere; by
John Dalton, Esq. FRS.; of which we shall probably give an
account in our next number.

ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY.

Jan. 13, 1826.—There was read a paper by Stephen Groom-
bridge, Esq. FRS. on the co-latitude of his observatory at
Blackheath, as determined from his own observations. The
author first describes a simple method of bringing the transit-
instrument into the meridian, by the observations of Polaris and
other circumpolar stars, and then by comparisons of high and
low stars. He next describes the method of ascertaining the
true zenith point, and thence the elevation of the pole, by obser-
vations of circumpolar stars in zenith-distance above and below
the pole, from which twice the co-latitude becomes known.
Employing his own constant of refraction, he obtains from obser-
vations of 32 circumpolar stars above and below the pole
77° 3’ 55-65 for the mean double co-latitude; thence
38° 31’ 57-82, and 51° 28’ 218 for the latitude; a result
which accords with his independent observations on the sol-
stices.

Mr. Groombridge next proceeds to deduce from this, the
co-latitude of the Royal Observatory. He determines the differ-
ence of the zeniths of the two observatories at 35/25, which
applied to the latitude of the Blackheath Observatory, by addi-
tion, gives 51° 28’ 37”-43 for that of the Royal Observatory,
being less than Mr. Pond makes it by more than a second. Mr.
Groombridge imputes the difference to an erroneous constant of
refraction. The author concludes his paper, by presenting some
simple formule for finding the position of a transit instrument,
from the observed transits of a high and low star, passing the
meridian to the south of the zenith ; or from the observed tran-
sit of a circumpolar star above and below the pole.

here was next read, a communication, from Sir Thomas
Brisbane, dated Paramatta, 2d July, 1825. The contents were,
Ist. Observations with a repeating circle for the winter solstice,
1825, extending from June 12th to July 1st inclusive. These
are not yet reduced. 2dly. Observations on the inferior con-
junction of Venus and the Sun, in May, 1825, with the mural
circle, from May Ist to 25th inclusive. 3dly. Observations
on the dip of the magnetic needle, March, 1825 ;—the mean of
the whole was 62° 417 35”. 4thly. Observations on the declina-
tion of the needle in March, Apmil, and May, 1825;—the mean
of the whole is 8° 59’ 48”. Lastly. An abstract of the Meteo-
“ae Journal kept at Paramatta, from April, 1824, to April,

230 Proceedings of Philosophicat Societies. [MAR@Hj
“ : GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. — S09
_ Jan, 20.—A paper was read, * On the Geology of Jamaica ;”
by H. T. De la Beche, Esq. FRS. &c. Mr. De Ia Beche’s
observations are confined to the eastern half of Jamaica, which
includes the whole range of the Blue Mountains, the highest
eminences of the Island, those of Port Royal, Spanish Town, the
Mocko Mountains, and other ridges of inferior elevation. These
heights often include or are connected with extensive plains, the
principal of which are those of Liguanea, Vere, and Lower Cla-
rendon, Luidas Vale, and St. Thomas’s. The rocks of oldest
formation which presented themselves to the author within this
district, he refers to the submedial or transition series. They
compose the greater part of the Blue Mountain range, and con-
sist of, 1. Graywacké, both foliated and compact, coarse and
fine, presenting in short the usual variations common to this
rock in Europe, and appearing on some points to pass into old
red sandstone; 2. Transition limestone, apparently destitute of
organic remains, compact, of a dark bluish gray colour, and
traversed by veins of calcareous spar; occasionally associated
with argillaceous slate, and its upper beads much intermixed
with sandstones. These stratified rocks throughout the Blue
Mountains generally dip towards the NE and ENE at a consi-
derable angle; but there are frequent exceptions to this rule,
and the strata are on the whole much contorted. They are occa-
sionally associated with trap rocks, viz. syenites, greenstones,
and claystone porphyry.
_. The author observed on one point, viz. the southern slope of
St. Catherine’s Hill, a series of strata which he conceives to
represent the coal measures ; the old red sandstone is, however,
developed on a larger scale, and in more numerous localities ; so
that the medial or carboniferous series is certainly not wanting
in Jamaica. Resting upon this appears, on many points, a por-
_phyritic conglomerate, associated with porphyry, and occasion-
ally with greenstone and syenite. Similar trap rocks, inter-
mixed in the most varied manner, show themselves very
extensively, composing the greater part of the St. John’s Moun-
tains, and the district bordering on the Agua Alta. One
variety of porphyry met with by the author is composed of
nodular concretions, separated by a soft argillaceous substance,
among which strings of chalcedony are sometimes found,’ It is
remarkable that the only instance of a similar structure which
has occurred to the author is in an amygdaloidal rock, decidedly
_of volcanic origin, at Black Hill, on another part of the island.
These trap rocks are found generally supporting the great
white limestone formation, which occupies a very large portion
of the whole island. This formation, from the fossils it contains,
“is referred by Mr. De la Beche to the tertiary series. It is prin-
cipally composed of white limestone, most frequently very

1926.) _ » Geological Society. 231

pact, and then strongly resembling the compact varieties of
em limestone. The strata are usually very thick, varying from
three to twenty feet in breadth. In some districts this rock is
interstratified with thick beds of red marle and sandstone, and
white chalky marles. The compact limestone constitutes the
middle part of the formation. The lower beds consist chiefly of
sands and marles, sometimes associated with bluish gray compact
- limestones, at others with beds of earthy yellowish white lime-
stone, containing an abundance of organic remains, viz. Echinites,
Pence, and particularly large species of Cerithium. The upper
eds of the formation are rather chalky, sandy, and marly, and
contain numerous remains of the genera Comus, Cerithium,
Astarte, Natica, &c. and near the sea-coast a great quantity of
Corals, which, frequently, have almost a recent appearance.

Above the white limestone formation, beds of conglomerate
and sandstone are visible on many points, particularly on the
edges of the Savannahs; whence the author calls them the
Savannah sandstones.

The upper beds of all visible in the island consist of diluvium

and alluvium. The former shows itself on a very large scale,
covering the surface of the principal plains, particularly that of
Liguanea.
‘| it consists of rounded fragments of the rocks which compose
the neighbouring mountains. The Hoperiver, which has cut its
channel through the plain of Liguanea, has exposed sections of
these diluvial gravel-beds, from 200 to 300 feet in thickness,
The greater part of the large plain of Vere and Clarendon is also
composed of diluvium. The pebbles of these beds consist
chiefly of trap rocks; those of white limestone are. compara-
tively rare, this rock appearing to have failed in resistance to
the force of attrition by which its fragments were attacked. The
separation between the diluvium and alluvium is not very decided ;
but deposits of the latter class have certainly been produced in
considerable quantities along the course of many of the rivers,
and on parts of the shore, particularly between Kingston and
Port Henderson, in front of which extends a long sand-bank,
called the Palisades.

Mr. De la Beche’s paper concludes with an interesting com-
parison of the Jamaica formations with those of Mexico and
South America, as described by M. de Humboldt. The gray-
wacké of Jamaica would seem to be continued in Mexico, with
its accompanying trap rocks, and dark-coloured limestones. In

South America it is absent, and its place is supplied solely by . .

porphyries, syenites, and greenstones, which are developed there
4 a very large scale. The red sandstone which is found in

amaica, occurs very extensively in the neighbouring parts of
the American continent. A formation analogous to the white

tes

939 Scientific Notices—Chemistry. (March,

limestone of Jamaica seems, from M. de Humboldt’s description,
to occur both in Mexico and Venezuela. by in

Feb. 3.—A paper was read, entitled, “Remarks on some
Parts of the Taunus Mountains, in the Duchy of Nassau; ” by
Sir A. Crichton, VPGS.&c. An abstract of this paper will be
given in our next.

MEDICO-BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.

On Monday, Jan. 16, this Society held its Anniversary Meet-
ing; when the following Officers and Council were elected for
the present year :— :
; Council.

President.—Sir J. M‘Gregor, MD. FRS. mf ;

Vice-Presidents——W. T. Brande, Esq. FRS.; Sir A. Cooper,
Bart. FRS.; Sir A. Crichton, FRS. Sir W. Franklin, FRS.;
E. T. Munro, MD.; J. A. Paris, MD.FRS. Hite

Treasurer—H. Drummond, Esq. FSA.

Director.—J. Frost, Esq. FSA.

Auditor of Accounts—W. Newman, Esq. > ba

Secretary.—R. Morris, Esq. FLS. '

T. Gibbs, Esq. FHS.; T. Gordon, MD. MRAS.; T. Jones,
cars G. H. Ree, MD.; J.G. Smith, MD.; W. Yarrell, Esq.

The gold medal of this Society was awarded to Matthew
Curling Friend, Esq. Lieutenant in the Royal Navy, and FRS,
for his communication respecting certain articles of the materia
medica used in Africa; and the silver medal to James Hunter,
Esq. FHS. :

E. W.B.

ARTICLE XIII.
SCIENTIFIC NOTICES.

CHEMISTRY.

1. Account of Prof. Berzelius’s Method of detecting Arsenic in
the Bodies of Persons poisoned. id

Prof. Berzelius has lately given some instructions for the dis-
covery of arsenic in persons that have been poisoned with it.
He considers the reduction of arsenic to the metallic state as the
only incontestible proof of the presence of this poison. Arsenic
may occur in two ways, viz. when it is found in substance (in
the state of arsenious acid) in tlie dead body, and when it is not
found in this state ; though the intestines of the dead body may
contain it in the state of a solution. t

In the first of these cases, it is easy to determine the presence

Mi

1826." Sciéntific Notices—Chemistry. 933

‘efarsenic. In orderto do this, take a piece about three inches
long, of an ordinary barometer tube, and having drawn out one
end of it into a much narrower tube close the end. Let some
of the arsenic found in the body be now put in at the open or
larger end, so that it may fall down to the bottom. Any quantity
of this arsenic of sufficient volume.to be taken from the body
will suffice for this purpose. The arsenic being at the bottom of
the small part of the tube, a little charcoal is let fall upon it, after
it has been freed from all moisture by bringing it to a red heat with
the blowpipe. The charcoal is then heated in thetube at the flame
of a spirit-lamp, the point where the arsenic lies being held out of
the flame. When the charcoal is very red, the point containing the
arsenic is drawn into the flame. The arsenic is then instantly
volatilized, and passing into vapour by the red charcoal, it is
reduced, and reappears on the other side of the flame in a metallic
state. The flame is then brought slowly towards the metallic
sublimate, which is thus concentrated into a smaller space in the
small tube; and then presents a small metallic ring shining
like polished steel.* We have now only to verify, by its smell,
that the metallic sublimate is arsenic. For this purpose, cut
the small tube with a file a little above the sublimate, and having
heated the place where it lies, put the nose above it at a small
distance, and the particular odour of the metal will be imme-
diately perceived.

‘+ In the case where the solid arsenic cannot be found, we must
‘collect as much as possible of the contents of the stomach and
the intestines, or even cut the stomach in pieces, and mix it
with its contents. The whole is then to be digested with a
solution of hydrate of potash. Hydrochloric acid is then added
in excess. The whole is filtered, and, if the liquid is too much
diluted, it is concentrated by evaporation. A current of sulphur-
‘etted hydrogen is then passed through it, which precipitates the
arsenic in the form of the yellow sulphuret. Ifthe quantity of
arsenic is very small, the liquid will become yellow without giv-
ing a precipitate. It must then be evaporated, and in proportion
as the hydrochloric acid becomes more concentrated, the sul-
phuret of arsenic will begin to be deposited. It is then filtered.
ff the sulphuret remaining on the filter is in too small a quantity
to be taken from the paper, add some drops of caustic ammonia,
which will dissolve it. Then put the liquid which passes the
filter into a watch-glass, and evaporate it. The ammonia will
be volatilized, and will leave as a residue the sulphuret of
arsenic. If it shall still be difficult to collect the sulphuret, we
must put into the watch-glass a little pulverized nitrate of
potash, and, with the finger, mix the sulphuret with the nitrate

_* Had the experiment been made in the wide part of the tube, the result would
scarcely have heen visible with a small quantity of arsenice :

234 Scientific’ Notices Chemistry. [Manon,

of potash, which detaches it from the glass. At the bottom of
a small phial, or a piece of glass tube, shut at one end, melt a
little nitrate of potash at the flame of a spirit-lamp, and intro-
‘duce into it, when melted, a little of the mixture which contains
the sulphuret of arsenic. It is oxidized with effervescence, but
without fire, or detonation, and without loss of arsenic, The
‘melted salt is then to be dissolved in water, and lime added in
excess, and the liquid boiled. The arseniate of lime will then
be deposited, and may be collected. When dried it is mixed
with charcoal, and then brought to a red heat by the blowpipe ;
‘and a small quantity of this mixture is allowed to fall to the
small end of the above-mentioned tube. It is now gradually
heated to expel all humidity which tends to throw it into the
wide part of the tube, and when it is very dry, heat, at the
flame of the blowpipe, the part of the tube which contains the
mixture. The arsenic will be disengaged, and be sublimed at
a distance from the heated part. An addition of vitrified boracice
acid greatly promotes the decomposition which then takes place
ata less elevated temperature; but the acid frequently contains
water, and produces a bubbling of the melted matter, which
raises it in the tube, and causes the vapours to issue by perfo-
rating the softened part of the glass. terct
M. Berzelius maintains, that the sixth part of a grain of sul-
phuret of arsenic is sufficient to make three different trials; but he
adds, that when we have discovered only very small traces of
arsenic, we must take care not to introduce any by means of
re-agents, among which, both the sulphuric and the hydrochlori¢e
acid may contain it. The first almost always contains some
arsenic when it is manufactured from volcanic sulphur, and the
second in consequence of sulphuric acid being used in the pre-
paration of hydrochloric acid, yields the arsenic which it contains
im separating it fromsoda. We must, therefore, be certain of
the purity of these re-agents.
: When death has been caused by the arsenic, and not by the
arsenious acid, the process must be modified, because the sul-
phuretted hydrogen gas decomposes the arsenic acid too slowly.
In this case, we must add hydrosulphuret of ammonia, which
reduces the arsenic acid to the state of sulphuret, which is after-
wards precipitated by the hydrochloric acid.*—(Edin. Phil. Jour.)

* It is obvious that Berzelius has not seen Dr. Christison’s paper on the “ Detection
‘of minute Quantities of Arsenic in mixed Fluids,”” ‘These gentlemen agree in precipi-
tating arsenious acid by sulphuretted hydrogen, so as\to obtain the yellow sulphuret ;
but their subsequent methods differ. Berzelius adopts a process which requires all the
dexterity of as expert a chemist as himself for conducting it with success. Dr. Christi-
son, on the contrary, scrapes the sulphuret from the filtre with a knife, which may be
done though a very minute portion of it is present, and obtains metallic arsenic at once
by heating it with black flux. We refer for particulars to his paper in the Edinburgh
and Surgical Journal.—(Note by the Editor.) DAY Sis Riles e

1826" Scientific’ Notices—Mineralogy. 235
fie ool of? ooo) - Mew erRatoey. bGlies xb Lod ME
* “2. Professor Berzelius’s Researches on Molybdena.

In studying the properties of molybdena, M. Berzelius hag
und. that this metal, of which we knew only the purple oxide,
wroduced by drying the blue oxide, and molybdic acid, has
As salifiable oxides, whose saline combinations were till now
unknown. The deutoxide may be procured by digesting a
mixture of molybdic acid, metallic molybdena, and sulphuric
or hydrochloric acid, till the colour of the liquid becomes a
deep red. Instead of metallic molybdena, we may substitute
metallic copper. The red liquid gives, with ammonia, a rust-
yellow precipitate, which is the hydrate of the deutoxide of
molybdena, .This hydrate is very soluble in water. When
it is washed, the water, after having removed the saline sul-
stances which caused its precipitation, begins to dissolve the
hydrate, and becomes yellow. It at last dissolves it entirely,
and the saturated solution is red. It reddens turnsol. The
hydrate dissolves in acids, and gives salts whose solutions axe
red, but which, when evaporated to dryness, are almost black.
» The-protoxide- is produced when we macerate the solution of
a salt with a base of the deutoxide, with mercury, and add, from
time to time, a liquid amalgam of potassium. The colour of
the liquid becomes deeper, and ends by growing black. Before
the introduction of the amalgam, we must add to it hydrochloric
acid, in order to prevent a part of the deutoxide from being
precipitated before its entire reduction to the protoxide. The
black solution is then precipitated by ammonia, .and the black
precipitate is the hydrate of the protoxide, which must be well
washed, and then dried in vacuo. The hydrate appears then
under the form of.a jet black powder. When heated in vacuo
it gives out slowly its water, and afterwards, at a temperature
which approaches to that of brown-red, it takes fire, and burns
with scintillation. The barometer of the air pump is not affected
by this phenomenon, which, in other respects, is of the same
nature as that which is observed in the hydrate of the peroxide of
iron, and the protoxide of chrome and of zircon. The anhydrous
protoxide is insoluble in acids; when heated in air it takes fire,
and burns feebly, producing the brown oxide of molybdena.
The salts of this oxide are black, and their dilute solutions have
a compound colour of green, black, and brown, though some~
times they assume a fine purple colopr. The fluate of the pro-
toxide, for example, is a very fine purple, and the double fluates
with potash, soda, and ammonia, are of a rose red colour.
- In order to form the protoxide of molybdena, we may make
use of zinc in the place of the amalgam of potassium ; but the
protoxide then retains the oxide of zinc in a very obstinate
manner,
¢

236 Scientific Notices—Mineralogy. [MArcn,

What is called molybdous acid, that is to say, the blue oxide
of molybdena, is not a particular acid. It cannot be combined
with alkalies, which, on the contrary, decompose it, by pre-
cipitating the hydrate of the yellow oxide, and combining with
the molybdic acid. It may be produced most readily in dis-
solving the bimolybdate of ammonia, and adding to it a solution
of a salt with a base of the deutoxide. It produces a precipitate
of a fine deep blue, which is very soluble in water, and is only
deposited because the water contains salts. We may wash it
with a solution of sal ammoniac, afterwards removing the salt by
a little cold water. It gives with warm water a blue solution,
highly saturated, which may be easily preserved at the ordinary
temperature of the atmosphere. In the dry form it resembles
indigo, and retains its solubility in water.

_ Prof. Berzelius has found, that the deutoxide of molybdena is
composed of one atom of molybdena and two atoms of oxygen,

The molybdic acid contains three atoms. The blue oxide is a by-

molybdate of the deutoxide of molybdzna, that is, Mo. + 4 Mo.
There is still another combination between the oxide and the acid
which is produced when the blue liquid is digested with metallic
molybdena. It isgreen, equally soluble in water, and precipitable
in sal ammoniac. M. Berzelius supposes its composition to be

Mo. + 2 Mo. Tungstic acid likewise combines with the deu-
toxide of molybdena, and the combination is very soluble in
water, and of a superb purple colour. It is also precipitated by
sal ammoniac.

The molybdic acid performs the part of a base towards the
stronger acids. M. Berzelius has examined them in this point
of view, and has described some of the salts which it forms,

M. Berzelius has discovered a new sulphuret of molybdzna,
proportional tothe molybdic acid. Itis of a ruby colour, trans-
parent, and crystallized. It combines with the metallic proto-
sulphurets, and forms with them particular salts, of which a
great number are soluble in water.

Molybdena combines with chlorine in three proportions. The
first is red, and a little volatile. The second is black, wery
fusible, very volatile, and crystallizes in a black mass, of a
brilliant colour, like iodine, which it resembles even in the
colour of its gas, which, however, is more red than violet. The
third is colourless, and crystallizes in scales. These three
chlorides correspond to the muriates of the protoxide, of the
deutoxide, and of the peroxide, that is to say, of the acid.
Iodine does not combine in the dry way with molybdena, but
the hydriodic acid dissolves the protoxide and the deutoxide.
aN molybdic acid decomposes it, and separates the iodine

rom it.

1826.] Scientific Notices Miscellaneous. 2375

_The best method of obtaining molybdena in some quan-
tity is, to heat the molybdic acid in a porcelain tube. When
this tube is heated to redness, there is introduced into it a
current of hydrogen gas, which is continued as long as it pro-
duces water.—(Edin. Journ. Science.)

MIscELLANEOUS.
3. On Native Silver from Michigan. By H. R. Schooleraft.

Mineralogical and Chemical Characters.—By examining this
mineral, it will be perceived to possess the colour, lustre, mal-
leability, and other obvious characters of native silver. It is so
soft, as to be easily cut by the knife; and ina state of purity
which permits it to spread under the hammer. These characters
serve to distinguish it from antimonial silver, which is not
malleable ; from native antimony, which tarnishes on exposure,
&c. The metal occurs in thin massive veins in the rock. These
veins sometimes intersect, but never cross each other. It is
also disseminated in small particles through the stone, or spread
in flattened masses over its surface. Some of these masses were
detached by the discoverer, but have been preserved, and are
presented to the Lyceum with the more solid and undisturbed
portions.

By submitting a small portion of the metal to the action of
nitric acid, I obtained an imperfect solution. On repeating the
experiment, and adding a little sulphuric acid, the action was
more brisk, and a clear and apparently perfect solution effected.
By standing, however, a pulpy white precipitate appeared at
the bottom of the glass. This was collected, and submitted to
the action of the blowpipe, on a basis of charcoal. The result
ie a number of minute, metallic globules, possessing greater

ustre, malleability, and ductility, than the original mass.: I
repeated the latter experiment, adding to the nitro-sulphuric
solution muriate of soda. A more perfect precipitation of the
white powder was effected; but the results with the blowpipe
remained the same.

Geognostic Position.—It is a rolled mass. An opinion of the
specific character of the rock may be dubious, from the smallness
of the specimen. It appears to have been detached from a
stratum of gneiss, and is essentially composed of quartz. The
blackish colour of some parts of this latter mineral would, at a
first glance, lead us to attribute this colour to the presence of
hornblende ; but on a closer examination, it will be perceived to
be owing to a dark coloured steatite, which, in certain parts of
the rock, is well developed, soft, and easily cut. A little calespar
is intermingled with the steatite. )

Locality.—1 am indebted to the politeness of Lieut. Lewis S,
Johnston, of the British Indian Department, at Malden, (U. C.)

238: Scientific Notices—MisceHaneous.§ [MAncn!

for the opportunity of adding this specimen to the mineralogical
éabinet of the Lyceum. This gentleman, as he informed me,
obtained it from the south-eastern shores of Lake Huron, near
Point aux Barques, in Michigan Territory. That part of Lake
Huron was cursorily examined by me, in the year 1820, in the’
course of the expedition conducted by Gov. Cass, through the
upper lakes, &c...We considered it remarkable, even in a
region abounding in rolled rocks, for the great number and va-
riety of granite, gneiss, hornblende, and trap bowlders, scattered
along the shores of the lake. The water here is generally shallow,
and dangerous to approach in vessels; these bowlder stones
sometimes extending and presenting themselves above water for’
a mile or more from land. But we could not satisfy ourselves,
by an examination necessarily partial, that either of the primitive
species mentioned, existed there in any other condition than as
rolled masses, or displacements of rock strata, contiguous, per-
haps, but not observed.. Dr. Bigsby has informed me, that he
observed the gneiss, in sztu, on the north-western shores of this
lake. The nearest rock in place, and that which in fact consti-
tutes the abraded and caverned promontory of Point aux Barques,
is gray sandstone.—(Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History
of New York.) !

4. Method of browning Iron. By Mr. J. Duntze, of New-Havens

DIG AGIA ie gursb'sa. veiw ee heieesqd- yin Guneed
Sweet spirits of nitre ...,.....+6+++ 4 ditto,
Spirits of wine. se seeseesseeeeee | ditto.
5 ]l@ WAAL.» in:a ocd op dns each eter eta ER
Tincture of steel . ......55 00004 1 ditto,

These ingredients are to be mixed, the vitriol having been
pteviously dissolved in a sufficient quantity of water to make,
with the other. ingredients, one quart of mixture. Previously
to. commencing the operation of browning a gun-barrel,. it is
necessary that it be well cleaned from all greasiness and other
impurities, and that a plug of wood be put into the muzzle, and
the vent well stopped. The mixture is then to be applied with
a clean sponge, or rag, taking care that every part of the barrel
be covered with the mixture, which must then be exposed to the
air for twenty-four hours, after which exposure the barrel must
be rubbed with a hard brush, to remove the oxide from the
surface.

This operation must be performed a second and a third time
(if requisite), by which the barrel will be made of a perfectly
brown colour, Jt must then be carefully brushed and wiped,
and immersed in boiling water, in which a quantity of alkaline
matter has been put, in order that the action of the acid upon

1896:} New Scientific Books. 289°

the barrel may be destroyed, and the impregnation of the water
by the acid neutralized. ©) —

The barrel, when taken from the water, must, after being
rendered perfectly dry, be rubbed smooth with a burnisher of
hard wood, and then heated to about the temperature of boiling
water ; it then will be ready to receive a varnish made of the,
following materials :—

Spirits of wine, one quart, ©
Dragon’s blood pulverized, three drams,
Shell lac bruised, one ounce ;

and after the varnish is perfectly dry upon the barrel, it must be
tubbed with the burnisher to give it a smooth and glossy
appearance.—(Silliman’s Journal.)

ArtTicLte XIV.
NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.

PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION.

Dr. J. Mason Good is preparing for publication a new work, to be
entitled ‘‘ The Book of Nature,” being a Series of Lectures. formerly
delivered at the Surrey Institution, as a popular Mlustration of the
general Laws and Phenomena of the Creation. It will be in three
volumes, 8vo.

JUST PUBLISHED.

_ Shaw’s General Zoology, or Systematic Natural History, continued
by James F. Stephens, FLS. &c. Vol. 13. In Two Parts.

_An Essay on the Application of Lunar Caustic, in the Cure of ¢er-
tain Wounds and Ulcers. By John Higginbottom, Mem. Roy. Coll.
Surg. London. 8vo. 6s. 6d. te
_. Numerous Cases illustrative of the Efficacy of the Hydrocyanic or
Prussic Acid in Affections of the Stomach. ‘By John Elliotson, MD,
8yo. 5s. 6d.

Dewce on the Medical Treatment of Children.

_ Forsyth’s New Medical and Surgical Dictionary, 8vo, 15s.

240 _ | New Patents. ~ [Marcus

ARTICLE XV.
NEW PATENTS.

R. Stevenson, Bridge Town, Warwickshire, engineer, for axletrees
to remedy the extra friction on curves to waggons, carts, and carriages,
used on rail reads, trainways, and other public roads.—Jan. 23. ;

R. Rigg, Bowstead Hall, Cumberland, for a new condensing appa-"
a to be used with the apparatus now in use for making vinegar.—

eb. 4.

J. C. Gamble, Dublin, chemist, for an apparatus for the concentra-
tion and crystallization of aluminous and other saline and crystallizable
solutions, part of which apparatus may be applied to the general pur-
poses of evaporation, distillation, inspissation, and desiccation, and
especially to the generation of steam.—Feb. 7. tae eel

W. Mayhew, Union-street, Southwark, and W. White, Cheapside,
ws manufacturers, for an improvement in the mantfacture of hats.—

eb. 7.

H. Evans, harbour-master of the port of Holyhead, North Wales,
for a method of rendering ships and other vessels, whether sailing or
propelled by steam, more safe in cases of danger by leakage, bilging,
or letting in water, than as at present constructed.—Feb. 7

W. Chapman, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, civil engineer, for improved
pee for loading or unloading of ships, vessels, or craft.—
—Feb. 7.

B. Cook, Birmingham, brass-founder, for improvements in making
files of various descriptions.—Feb. 7.

W. Warren, Crown-street, Finsbury-square, for improvements in
the process of extracting from the peruvian bark, medicinal substances
or properties, known by the name of quinine and cinctronine, and pre-
paring the various salts to which these substances may serve as a basi
—Feb. 11. be
J. L. Higgins, Oxford-street, for improvements in the construction
of the masts, yards, sails, rigging of ships, and smaller vessels, and in
the tackle used for working or navigating the same.—Feb. 11.

B. Newmarch, Cheltenham, and C. Bonner, Gloucester, brazier, for
a mechanical invention to be applied for the purpose of suspending and
securing windows, gates, doors, shutters, blinds, and other apparatus.
—Feb. 18. ne anes

T. Walter, Luton, Bedfordshire, straw-hat manufacturer, for im~
provements in the manufacture of straw plat, for making bonnets, hats,
and other articles.—Feb. 18.

C. Whitlaw, Bayswater Terrace, Paddington, medical botanist,
for improvements in administering medicines by the agency of steam or
vapour.—Feb. 18.

A. Buffum, Bridge-street, hat manufacturer, for improvements in the
process of making or manufacturing and dyeing hats.—Feb. 18.

ANNALS

OF

PHILOSOPHY.

APRIL, 18

ArticLE I.

~ On Solutions of the Function * x, and their Limitations.
, By Mr. W. G. Horner.
‘ (Concluded from p. 173.)
_ 9. From the preceding train of argument, in which I hope I
have erred, if at all, only in preferring minuteness to obscurity,
“it will be evident, among other things, that I was correct in
excluding k = 5 from the solution
a+bgex
bex= on ee oe (28)
(4 8 eon. 83) a 7a"
and that /wo perfectly distinct genera must be recognised, in the
solution of periodic equations. This is a circumstance which
has not yet, as it appears to me, attracted the attention of
mathematicians, in any degree proportioned to its importance ;
and, nevertheless, there are few instances of the practical appli-
cation of functional principles which do not exhibit strong
‘Indications of its influence. In the majority of examples, the
solution of the ultimate differential equation has been only
effected by making | x constant ; and | am not aware that any
exists which has admitted of solution on the principles {? « = a,
cand }‘*” x = 2, at the same time; or that a solution by means
of a function of any one order above the second exists, which
does not hold true for any other of the superior orders.
For two very instructive examples in illustration of these
oints, I refer the reader to Questions 408 and 409 of the
athematical Repository, proposed and solved by Mr. Herschel.
In the former of those questions, however, Mr. H. seems to

express a belief that the solution ‘ * “=
contained in the formula

1
Pr =o7'{()l)*. gx}
* In all the formule distinguished by an asterisk, 3 is to be understood as
k
= — restricted as in Art. 8,

, as well as all others, is

New Series, vou. x1. R

242 Mr. Horner on [Arrit,

« though,” adds he, “to demonstrate this in any case but when
n= 2, seems a matter of some difficulty.” .

I submit, that the converse of this, perhaps, is likely to be
correct, viz. that all read solutions of Y" x = x are comprised in
the formula ‘
a+boger
c#dGgr

2 em

which, as_ will readily appear, resolves itself into two distinct
and very simple formule, according as 7 is = 2 or > 2.

In fact, by making a, c, d, vanish, and putting 6 = (1), Mr.
Herschel’s formula is immediately obtained ; but as it does not
appear to me that this can be reduced to a real form when x > 2
and it has moreover, in this instance, been obtained by saerific-
ing the arbitrary character of the constants, we will pass on to
another mode.

10. Not to multiply symbols in an easy inquiry, the re
will recollect that the vie of @ and Shasike! ye Tart
step of the process. sh

Make then¢x = 2 + a and we have

ye be + ad
ld d(b+eF dG)
Where (Ist) if + c = 0, we have, putting é = =@,
Cc

oz’

is eee ce

a
which is obviously a solution of {° # = x. But again, put
ga = + x C, and we have Pint)

eaishl:
vr=9 or eeeeee everest oesesereeeees (30) A
for a general solution of the second order of functional circles.
But secondly, retaining 6 and c arbitrary in eq. 29, make
n= - and it becomes, putting + bc +a d= B, and b+c
— A,

B
yr= 9

AF $2

sad, Sicasher od gave OH

Or, putting again 97 = w VB,

Lx => —— eoeeseereeeeeeeoeree (22)

7 a

: 1
If ¢ x be again made = —, we have
x

pr=o {7 F = es (33)

1826.] Solutions of the Function Y x. 243

Equation (32) gives, putting va pales
. BNP Ug 1
Yxr=o Soars visti ge ke -epes (34)
the fraction extending to z terms. Now if ¢ x be neglected in
the last term, the law of the numerators in the converging series
is well known to be
N, os Wi As Ne,

and the same formula serves for the denominators also. Where-
fore the roots of

y- syt 150
being R and7, we have

N.=aRi + Br

D, = «4, R* + 8,
and the values of the constants being determined from the
‘known values of the fractions when z = 0 andz = — 1, viz.

. and = the general value of the fraction is readily found to be

N, ab R: — 7
pe ae R-+1 — perl

Whence, restoring ¢ x to its place,
op me gn A) F BI oe
Vr= oo (Port) ge iRomes tt O4)

These formule accommodate themselves to all conditions, by

making s, that is, at = 2 cot. 3, when the lower sign appears,

or = 2 cosec. $, or 2 cos. 9 with the upper sign; the values of
R, 7, being in the first case cot. 2 $ and — tan +$; in the
second, cot +3 and tan.1$; and in the third, cos. 9 + sin. $
/ —I1. The last alone appertains to periodical functions,
Hence the solution of "x = x, is
zp, pa Gsine 2S — sin. (ge —1)$.o2 %
a= 6 Ewe +1)$ Sess vere (35)
which is reducible to

BLED ey
= er? = ed *
Yr=¢@ (a - «» (36)

2cos. 3 —

sin. 2 5
which, when x = 1, gives

a= e7* (2cos, “= — r) T)T sicko cede (37)

This solution, while, through the efficacy of the arbitrary
function, it possesses all the generality of formula (28), has the
great advantage of being convenient for differential purposes.
All the partial solutions of functional equations which I have
ever met with are contained in it; and being quite as simple in

R2

‘

244 Mr. Horner on [ApRin by

its form as any of them, it may be applied to complete the general
solution of many equations which have hitherto been solved only
in particular cases. For instance, the general value of

dw
$3 Mire

in Mr. Herschell’s question, already alluded to, becomes

_,t— cos. 5
sin. 3

log. / (x*—2 cos. 3 x+1)—cot.$ x tan. *

11. The subject of continued fractions, which has incidentally
occurred in this investigation, being intimately connected with
the theory of circulating functions, and affording in consequence
another proof of the existence of a sunk fence, so to say, which
separates the first and second from the higher orders of func-
tional equations, it was my intention to have pursued it in this
place. The summation of a finite number of terms ofa continued
periodical fraction is effected in the Exercises in D. and I.
Calculus, only for the two inferior orders, and is not lucidly as
to the result, nor even completely, stated in La Grange’s Res.
des Eqq. Numeriques. But finding that my investigation and
remarks would cause too long a digression, | reserve them for a
future but early opportunity.

12, Geometry supplies an elegant, and, at the same time, a
very simple illustration both of the nature of periodical functions,
and of the restriction they are subject to. Setting aside the
effect of ¢, all our equations are manifestly those ofan hyperbola
taken between the asymptotes, the excentricity,in equation (32)
and the following, being = 2, and the origin of abscissas being

at the distance yy from the centre. Now in our trigonometrical

solutions, this distance is marked as cot. 3, or cosec. $, or cos. 3,
to radius 2. Hence, on the conditions of circulating, we have
the following construction, regarding ¢ merely as a mark of an
arbitrary addend effecting a proportional and simultaneous
transfer both of the line and origin of abscisse.

With centre C, the centre of a pair of hyperbolas, and radius
C X = the excentricity, describe a circle intersecting one of the
asymptotes in X, Y, and the other in V, Z. In the semicircle
X V Y take any point M which divides it commensurately [say
XM: XVY:: m : x], and drop the perpendicular M N on
X Y. Through N draw the indefinite right line O Q parallel to
the common chord of the circle, and of one of the hyperbolas.
Through any point A in P Q draw the indefinite right line B D,
parallel to X Y, either of the asymptotes. If B D be takenas a
line of successive abscisse originating at A, and each equal and
similarly affected to the preceding ordinate, then after m opera-
tions the series will recommence, and so on 7m infinitum.

1826.) Solutions of the Function Y x. 245

In the figure = = 2 avd only those portions of the ordinates

are drawn which termiriate in P Q; and being connected by
portions of lines parallc:l to the abscisse, the whole forms an
irregular polygon of n erjual angles, and 2 x sides equal by pairs,
which is but another «tfect of ¢, as deducting equal portions
from every ordinate and abscissa.

When N falls upon X or Y, this construction fails; for X V
being a tangent to the: hyperbola, wherever the abscissee com-
mence, the ordinates \will continually approach the point of con-
tact, but never pass it. This corresponds to the case k = n.

It equally fails wlien N falls upon C. For the asymptotes
being properiy neithc:r abscisse nor ordinates, and no others, in
our solution, beg connected with the point C, this is nota
correct origin of absc:isse, so that no transfer of such origin can
be made. Accordin;zly the only real lines of abscissw are those
which pass through the vertex of one of the hyperbolas, and the
origin is at their inte:rsection with the conjugate diameter, agre-
ably to equation (30:), into which no circular function enters.
Hence the ordinate and its abscissa are always of the same
affection, both positive or both negative, which never happens
in the general constiuction, nor in equation (37); one or more
changes of sign being necessarily engaged in completing the
circle of operations. This exception attaches tok = }n.

246 Mr. Herapath’s Reply to Mr. Horner. {ApPRit,

17. Little needs to be said on the inferior sources of perplexity,
which have been imagined. It will have occurred to the reader,
even in Art. 1, that f* « having two distinct meanings may be
subject to limitations in one point of view, which in another
have no existence. Asa function of z it leaves x perfectly arbi-
trary, but as a function of x, and especially a periodic function,
it confines our attention to the ordinal character of z. The same
applies, perhaps, with still greater force to, which in strictness
can be no other than a term, either affirmative or negative, in the
natural series of integers, agreeably to Mr. Herschell’s definition,

(Examples, vol. ii. sect. 11). If rational fractions, as =, have
appeared admissible, it was solely in virtue of the ordinal

character of the numerator. In fact, in representing /" # = xv
to bea periodic formula, we make two statements, viz. px = x%"@

—T
i

and y"x = 2. Consequently } "x = x7" = x Le And
this is, in every respect, the prei‘erable mode of operating, as

Mr. Herapath will find, if he applies it to the case v : ax, when

2
° « = x, which he has solved. (An.nals, Nov. 1824.)

By reducing an irrational index to converging fractions, we
may render the function susceptible of indefinite approach toward
the periodical state; e. g. fY ® w == a, is nearly solved by
S = x°, when x3 x = a; more nearly byw_f = x° when x7 # = x3
still more nearly by f = x when x7 x = x; andsoon, But
such functions cannot with accuracy be termed periodical.

An imaginary index destroys the co uditions of circulation,
being incapable of an ordinal character.

Some caution would even appear to bere quisite in interpolating
even at regular intervals, or the conditions ofthe problem may be

completely altered’; as, for example, in ta king f? «in Equation

(26) where a given effect is to recur only at: definite intervals.
W. G. Horner.

<a

ArmicLe II. |
On Mr. Horner’s Solution of Yw =x. 13y J, Herapath, Esq.
(To the Editors of the Annals of 1 Philosophy.)

GENTLEMEN, \ Cranford, March 1, 1826.

Yo vu wiil, I have no doubt, allow me t .o correct a misrepre-
sentation in your present Number of a part « »f my writings printed
in the Annals for Nov. 1824. Mr. Horner, in your Number for

1826.} Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations. 247

March, page 173, says, “The fallacy of Mr. Herapath’s
attempt to prove k = 12 to be admissible, lies in his
erroneous assumption of the ‘ mutual independence’ of the
numerator and denominator in the value of d in the present case,”
that is, of
(6 + c)?
2 a (cos. x + 1)"

Now in the above-cited Number, p. 328, my words are, using
d for the sign of differentiation, “because $c and 8a are
mutually independent, this value

$c?
aba
may be any thing.” It is, therefore, the differentials of the
functional roots of the numerator and denominator which I have
called independent, and not, as Mr. Horner attributes to me, the
numerator and denominator themselves. 1 have thought it neces-
sary to notice this, because Mr. Horner has neither quoted the
passage he criticises, nor even once alluded to the place or work
where it is to be found. Had he done either, I should have left
the simple evidence itself of what I have advanced to answer
Mr. Horner’s positive and groundiess charge of “ fallacy ” and
error. Iam, Gentlemen, your obedient humble servant,
J. HERAPATH.

ARTICLE III.

Astronomical Observations, 1826.
By Col. Beaufoy, FRS.

Bushey Heath, near Stanmore.
Latitude 51° 37’ 44°3” North. Longitude West in time 1’ 20:93”,

F Occultation by the Moon.
Feb. 17. Immersion ofa small star ........ 7 27! 30-8” Sidereal Time,

Eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites.

Feb. 26. Immersion of Jupiter’s second { Sh 06! 44’ Mean Time at Bushey.
Watellite 4. 50st isi. ee. 8 08 05 Mean Time at Greenwich.

March 3, Immersion of Jupiter’s third {10 34 15 Mean Time at Bushey.
BBLEMG es ois o'b.e tiie 6,000.0 acts { 10 35 36 Mean Time at Greenwich.

248 ' Sir Humphry Davy onthe © °° [Aprit;

ARTICLE I] V.

Further Researches on the Preservation of Metals by Electro-
chemical Means. By Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. Pres. RS.*

In two papers read before the Royal Society, I have described
the effects of small quantities of electro-positive metals’ in pre-
venting the corrosion or chemical changes of copper exposed to
sea water, and I have stated that the results appear to be of the.
same kind, whether the experiments are made upon a minute
scale, and in confined portions of water, or on large masses, and
in the ocean.

The first and preliminary experiments proved, that the copper
sheeting of ships might be’preserved by this method; but
another and a no less important circumstance was to be attended
to,—how far the cleanness of the bottom, or its freedom from the
adhesion of weeds or shell fish, would be influenced by this
preservation.

The use of the copper sheathing on the bottom of ships is two-
fold ; first, to protect the wood from destruction by worins ; and
secondly, to prevent the adhesion of weeds, barnacles, and other
shell fish. No worms can penetrate the wood as long as the
surface of the copper remains perfect; but when copper has
been applied to the bottom of a ship for a certain time, a green
coating or rust, consisting of oxide, submurtate and carbonate of
copper and carbonate of magnesia forms upon it, to which weeds
and shell fish adhere.

As long as the whole surface of the copper changes or corrodes,
no such adhesions can occur; but when this green rust has
partially formed, the copper below is protected by it, and there
1s an unequal action produced, the electrical effect of the oxide,
submuriate, and carbonate of copper formed, being to produce a
more rapid corrosion of the parts still exposed to sea water; so
that the sheets are often found perforated with holes in one part,
after being used five or six years, and comparatively sound in
other parts. .

There is nothing in the poisonous nature of the metal which
prevents these adhesions. It is the solution by which they are _
prevented—the wear of surface. Weeds and shell fish readily
adhere to the poisonous salts of lead which form upon the lead
protecting the fore part of the keel; and to the copper, in any
chemical combination in which it is insoluble.

In general in ships in the navy, the first effect of the adhesion
of weeds is perceived upon the heads of the mixed metal nails,
which consist of copper alloyed by a small quantity of tin, The

* From the Philosophical Transactions for 1825, Part IT.

1826.]: Preservation of Metals by. Electro-chemical Means. 249

oxides of tin and copper which form upon the head of the nail
and in the space round it, defend the metal from the action of
sea water; and being negative with respect to it, a stronger
corroding effect is produced in its immediate vicinity, so that
the copper is often worn into deep and irregular cavities in these
arts.

t When copper is unequally worn, likewise, in harbours or seas
where the water is loaded with mud or mechanical deposits, this
mud or these deposits rest in the rough patie or depressions in
the copper, and in the parts where the different sheets join, and
afford a soil or bed in which sea weeds can fix their roots, and
to which zoophytes and shell fish can adhere.

As far as my experiments have gone, small quantities of other
metals, such as iron, tin, zinc, or arsenic, in alloy in copper, have
appeared to promote the formation of an insoluble compound on
the surface; and consequently there is much reason to believe
must be favourable to the adhesion of weeds and insects.

I have referred in my last paper to the circumstance of the

carbonate of lime and magnesia forming upon sheets of copper,
protected by a quantity of iron above +1, parts, when these
sheets were in harbour and at rest.
_ The various experiments that I have caused to be made at
Portsmouth, show all the circumstances of this kind of action,
and I have likewise elucidated them by experiments made on a
smaller scale, and in limited quantities of water. It appears
from these experiments, that sheets of copper at rest in sea
water, always increase in weight from the deposition of the alka-
line and earthy substances, when defended by a quantity of cast
iron under 1 of their surface, and if in a limited or confined
quantity of water, when the proportion of the defending metal is
under z;,,- With quantities below these respectively propor-
tional for the sea, and limited quantities of water, the copper
corrodes ; at first it slightly increases in weight, and then slowly
loses weight. Thus a sheet of copper, four feet long, 14 inches
wide, and weighing 9 lb, 6 oz. protected by —1.. of its surface of
cast iron, gained in ten weeks and five days, 12 drachms, and
was coated over with carbonate of lime and magnesia: a sheet
of copper of the same size protected by ;1,, gained only one
drachm in the same time, and a part of it was green from the
adhering salts of copper; whilst an unprotected sheet of the
same class, both as to size and weight, and exposed for the same
time, and as nearly as possible under the same circumstances,
had lost 14 drachms; but experiments of this kind, though they
agree when carried on under precisely similar circumstances,
must of necessity be very irregular in their results, when made
in different seas and situations, being influenced by the degree
of saltness, and the nature of the impregnations of the water, the
strength of tide and of the wayes, the temperature, Kc.

250 Sir Humphry Davy on the fAprit,

In exatnining sheets which had been defended by small
uantities of iron in proportions under ,1, and above +4,,
whether they were exposed alone, or on the sides of boats, there
seemed to me no adhesions of conferve, except in cases where
the oxide of iron covered the copper immediately round the
protectors ; and even in these instances such adhesions were
extremely trifling, and might be considered rather as the vege~
tations caught by the rough surface of the oxide of iron, than as
actually growing uponit.

Till the month of July, 1824, all the experiments had been
tried in harbour, and in comparatively still water; and though
it could hardly be doubted, that the same principles would
prevail in cases where ships were in motion, and on the ocean ;
yet still it was desirable to determine this by direct experiment;
and I took the opportunity of an expedition intended to ascer-
tain some points of longitude in the north seas, and which
afforded me the use of a steam boat, to make these researches.
Sheets of copper carefully weighed, and with different quantities
of protecting metal, and some unprotected, were exposed upon
canvass so as to be electrically insulated upon the bow of the
steam boat; and were weighed and examined at different
periods, after being exposed in the north seas to the action of the
water during the most rapid motion of the vessel. Very rough
weather interfered with some of these experiments, and many
of the sheets were lost, and the protectors of others were
washed away; but the general results were as satisfactory as if
the whole series of the arrangements had been complete. It was
found that undefended sheets of copper of a foot square lost
about 6:55 grains in passing at a rate averaging that of eight
miles an hour in twelve hours; but a sheet, having the same
surface, defended by rather less than >1, lost 5°5 grains; and

that like sheets defended by =, and +4, ‘of malleable iron were

100

similarly worn, and underwent nearly the same loss, that of two
grains, in passing through the same space of water. These
experiments (the results of which were confirmed by those of
others made during the whole of a voyage to and from Heligo-
land, but in which during the return the protectors were lost)
show that motion does not affect the nature of the limits and
quantity of the protecting metal; and likewise prove, that
independently of the chemical, there is a mechanical wear of the
copper in sailing, and which on the most exposed part of the
ship, and in the most rapid course, bears a relation to it of
nearly 2 to 4°55.

I used the very delicate balance belonging to the Royal
Society in these experiments ; the sheets of copper weighed
between 7 and 8000 grains; and I was fully enabled to ascer-
tain by means of this balance, a diminution of weight upon so
large a quantity, equal to 73, ofa grain. It was evident from a

1826.] | Preservation of Metals by Electro-chemical Means. 251

very minute inspection of the sheet with the largest quantity of
rotecting metal, that there was not any adhesion of alkaline or
earthy substances to its surface.

Having observed, in examining the results of some of the
experiments on the effects of single masses of protecting metal
on the sheeting of ships, that there was in some cases in which
sheets with old fastening had been used, tarnish or corrosion,
which seemed to increase with the distance from the protecting
metal, it became necessary to investigate this circumstance, and
to ascertain the extent of the diminution of electrical action in
instances of imperfect or irregular conducting surfaces.

With single sheets or wires of copper, and in small confined
quantities of sea water, there seemed to be no indications of
diminution of conducting power, or of the preservative effects
of zine or iron, however divided or diffused the surface of the
copper, provided there was a perfect metallic connexion through
_ the mass. Thus, a small piece of copper containing about 32
square inches, was perfectly protected by a quantity of zinc
which was less than 5. part of the whole surface; and a
copper wire of several feet in length was prevented from tarnish-
ing by a piece of zinc wire which was less than +,',,, part of its
length. Tn these cases the protecting metal corroded with great
rapidity, and in a few hours was entirely destroyed ; but when
applied in the form of wire and covered, except at its transverse
surface, with cement, its protecting influence upon the same
minute scale was exhibited for many days. A part of these
results depend upon the absorption of the oxygen dissolved in
the water when its quantity is limited, by the oxidable metal,
and of course the proportion of this metal must be much larger
when the water is constantly changing ; but the experiments
seem to show that any diminution of protecting effect at a dist-
ance, does not depend upon the nature of the metallic, but of
the imperfect or fluid conductor.

This indeed is shown by many other results.

A piece of zinc and a piece of copper in the same vessel of
sea water, but not in contact, were connected by different lengths
of fine silver wire of different thickness. It was found that
whatever lengths of wire of =, of an inch were used, there was
no diminution of the protecting effect of the zine ; and the expe-
riment was carried so far as to employ the whole of a quantity
of extremely fine wire, amounting to upwards of forty feet in
length, and of a diameter equal only to =1°°. of an inch, when
the results were precisely the same as if the zinc and copper had
been in immediate contact.

Pieces of charcoal, which is the worst amongst the more
perfect conductors, were connected by being tied together,
and made the medium of communication between zinc and
copper, upon the same principles, and with the same views

252 _ Sir Humpnry Davy on the. [APRIL,

as those just described, and with precisely the same conse-
quences. ee

In my first experiments upon the effects of increasing the
length or diminishing the mass of the imperfect or fluid conduct-
ing surface in interfering with the preserving effects of metals,
T used long narrow tubes ; but I found them very inconvenient ;
and [ had recourse to the more simple method of employing
cotton or tow for this purpose.

Several feet of copper wire in a spiral form were connected
with a small piece of zinc wire of about half an inch in length.
The zinc and a portion of the copper were introduced into one
glass, and the coils of copper wire were introduced into other
glasses, so as to form a series of six or seven glasses, which
were filled with sea water, and made part of the same voltaic
arrangement, by being connected with pieces of tow moistened
in sea water.

It was found in these experiments, that when the pieces of
tow connecting the glasses were half an inch in thickness, the
preserving effect of the zinc in the first glass was no where dimi-
nished, but extended apparently equally through the whole
series.

When the pieces of tow were about the fifth of an inch in
thickness, a diminution of the preserving effects of the zinc was
perceived in the fourth glass, in which there was a slight solution
of copper; in the fifth class this result was still more distinct,
and so on tillin the seventh glass there was a considerable cor-
rosion of the copper.

When the tow was only the tenth of an inch in thickness, the
preserving effect of the zinc extended only to the third glass ;
and in each glass more remote, the effect of corrosion was more
distinct, till in the seventh glass it was nearly the same as if
there had been no protecting metal. All the chemical changes
dependent upon negative electricity were successively and
elegantly exhibited in this experiment. In the first glass con-
taining the zinc, there was a considerable and hasty deposition
of earthy and alkaline matter, and crystals of carbonate of soda
adhered to the copper at the surface where it was clean and
bright; but in the lower part it was coated with revived metallic
zinc. Inthe second glass the wire was covered over with fine
crystals of carbonate of lime; and the same phenomenon of the
separation of carbonate of soda occurred, but in a less degree.
In the third glass the wire was clean, but without depositions ;
and the presence of alkaline matter could only be distinguished
by chemical tests. In the fourth glass the copper was bright,
evidently in consequence of a slight but general corrosion, but
with a scarcely sensible deposit; in the fifth, the deposit was
very visible; and in the seventh the wire was covered with
green rust,

1826.] "Preservation of Metals by Electro-chemical Means. 253

_ These results, which showed that a very small quantity only
of the imperfect or fluid conductor was sufficient to transmit the
electrical power, or to complete the chain, induced me to try if
copper nailed upon wood, and protected merely by zinc or iron
on the under surface, or that next the wood, would not be
defended from corrosion. For this purpose I covered a piece of
wood with small sheets of copper, a nail of zinc of about the
iz part of the surface of the copper being previously driven
into the wood: the apparatus was plunged in a large jar of sea
water: it remained perfectly bright for many weeks, and when
examined, it was found that the zinc had only suffered partial
corrosion ; that the wood was moist, and that on the interior of
the copper there was a considerable portion of revived zinc, so
that the negative electricity, by its operation, provided materials
for its future and constant excitement. In several trials of the
same kind, iron was used with the same results ; and in all these
experiments there appeared to be this peculiarity in the appears
ance of the copper, that unless the protecting metal below was
in very large mass, there were no depositions of calcareous or
magnesian earths upon the metal; it was clean and bright, but
never coated. The copper in these experiments was nailed
sometimes upon paper, sometimes upon the mere wood, and
sometimes upon linen; and the communication was partially
interrupted between the external surface and the internal surface
by cement; but even one side or junction of a sheet seemed to
allow sufficient communication between the moisture on the
under surface and the sea water without, to produce the electri-
cal effect of preservation.

. These results upon perfect and imperfect conductors led to
another inquiry, important as it relates to the practical applica-
tion of the principle ; namely, as to the extent and nature of the
contact or relation between the copper and the preserving metal.
I could not produce any protecting action of zinc or iron upon
copper through the thinnest stratum of air, or the finest leaf of
mica, or of dry paper; but the action of the metals did not seem
to be much impaired by the ordinary coating of oxide or rust ;
nor was it destroyed when the finest bibulous or silver paper, as
it is commonly called, was between them, being moistened with
sea water. I made an experiment with different folds of this

aper. Pieces of copper were covered with one, two, three,
our, five, and six folds ; and over them were placed pieces of
zinc, which were fastened closely to them by thread; each piece
of copper so protected was exposed in a vessel of sea water, so
that the folds of paper were all moist.

It was found in the case in which a single leaf of paper was
between the zinc and the copper, there was no corrosion of the
copper ; in the case in which there were two leaves, there was a
very slight effect ; with three, the corrosion was distinct ; and it

a - Sir Humphry Davy on the ‘[Aprit,

increased, till with the six folds the protecting power appeared
to be lost: and in the case of the single leaf, there was this
difference from the result of immediate contact, that there was
no deposition of earthy matter. Showing that there was no
absolute minute contact of the metals through the moist paper;
which was likewise proved by other experiments; for a thin
plate of mica, as [ have just mentioned, entirely destroyed the
protecting effect of zinc: and yet when a hole was made init, so
as to admit a very thin layer of moisture between the zinc and
copper, the corrosion of the copper, though not destroyed, was
considerably diminished. +

The rapid corrosion of iron and zinc, particularly when used
to protect metals, only in very small quantities, induced me to
try some experiments as to their electro-chemical powers in
menstrua out of the contact, or to a certain extent removed
from the contact of the air, such as might be used for moistening
paper under the copper sheathing of ships: the results of these
experiments I shall now detail. A small piece of iron was
placed in one glass filled with a saturated solution of brine,
which contains little or no air; copper, attached by a wire to
the iron, was placed in a vessel containing sea water, which was
connected with the brine by moistened tow. The copper did
not corrode, and yet the iron was scarcely sensibly acted upon,
and that only at the surface of the brine; and a much less cfiee
was produced upon it im many weeks than would have been
occasioned by sea water in as many days. im

Withzinc and brine in the same kind of connexion there was
a similar result ; but the solution of the zinc was comparatively
more rapid than that of the iron, and the copper was rendere
more highly negative, as was shown by a slight deposition of
earthy matter upon it. tien

A solution of potassa, or of alkaline substances pbssessing
the electro-positive energy, has nearly the same effect on saline
solutions as if they were deprived of air; and when mixed with
sea water impedes the action of metals upon them; but if used
in quantity in combinations such as these I have just described,
in which iron is the protecting metal, it destroys the result, and
renders the iron negative. Thus, if iron and copper in contact,
or fastened to each other by wires, be in two vessels of sea water
connected by moist cotton or asbestos, all the various circum-
stances of protection of the two metals by each other may be
exhibited by means of solution of potassa. By adding a few
drops of solution of potassa to the water in the glass containing
the iron, the negative powers of the copper in the other glass
are diminished; so that the deposition of the calcareous and
magnesian earths upon it is considerably lessened: by a little
more solution of potassa the deposition is destroyed, but still
the copper remains clean. The corrosion of the iron, which

1826.) Preservation of Metals by Electro-chemical Means. 258

before was rapid, is now almost at an end; and a few drops
more of the solution of potassa produces a perfect equilibrium ;
so that neither of the metals undergoes any change, and the
whole system is in a state of perfect repose. By making the
fluid in the glass containing the iron still more alkaline, it no
longer corrodes; and the green tint of the sea water shows that
the copper is now the positively electrified metal ; and when the
solution in the glass containing the iron is strongly alkaline, the
copper in the other glass corrodes with great rapidity, and the
iron remains in the electro-negative and indestructible state.

' I began this paper by some observations upon the nature of
the processes by which copper sheeting is destroyed by sea
water, and on the causes by which it is preserved clean, or
rendered foul by adhesions of marine vegetables or animals; I
shall conclude it by some further remarks on the same subject,
and with some practical inferences and some theoretical elucida=
tions, which naturally arise from the results detailed in the fore-
going pages.

The yery first experiment that I made on harbour-boats at
Portsmouth, proved that a single mass of iron protected fully
and entirely many sheets of copper, whether in waves, tides, or
currents, so as to make them negatively electrical, and in such
a degree as to occasion the deposition of earthy matter upon
them ; but observations on the effects of the single contact of
iron upon a number of sheets of copper, where the junctions and
nails were covered with rust, and that had been in a ship for
some years, showed that the action was weakened in the case
of imperfect connexions by distance, and that the sheets near
the protector were more defended than those remote from it.
Upon this idea I proposed, that when ships, of which the copper
sheeting was old and worn, were to be protected, a greater pro-
portion of iron should be used, and that if possible it should be
more distributed. The first experiment of this kind was tried on
the Sammarang, of 28 guns, in March, 1824, and which had
been coppered three years before in India. Cast iron, equal in
surface to about ;!, of that of the copper was applied in four
masses, two near the stern, two on the bows. She made a voyage
to Nova Scotia, and returned in January, 1825. A false and
entirely unfounded statement respecting this vessel was
published in most of the newspapers, that the bottom was
covered with weeds and barnacles. I was at Portsmouth soon
after she was brought into dock: there was not the smallest
weed or shell-fish upon the whole of the bottom from a few feet
round the stern protectors to the lead on her bow. Round the
stern protectors there was a slight adhesion of rust of iron, and
upon this there were some zoophytes of the capillary kind, of an
inch and a half or two inches in length, and a number of minute
barnacles, both Lepas anatifera and Balanus tintinnabulum.

256 Sir Humphry Davy on the [ApriL,

For a considerable space round the protectors, both on the
stern and bow, the copper was bright; but the colour became
green towards the central parts of the ship; yet even here the
rust or verdigrease was a light powder, and only small in quan-
tity, and did not adhere, or come off in scales, and there had
been evidently little copper lost in the voyage. That the pro-
tectors had not been the cause of the trifling and perfectly
insignificant adhesions by any electrical effect, or by occasion-
ing any deposition of earthy matter upon the copper, was
evident from this—that the lead on the bow, the part of the ship
most exposed to the friction of the water, contained these adhe-
sions in a much more accumulated state than that in which they
existed near the stern; and there were none at all on the clean
copper round the protectors in the bow; and the slight coating
of oxide of iron seems to have been the cause of their appear-
ance.

] had seen this ship come into dock in the spring of 1824,
before she was protected, covered with thick green carbonate
and submuriate of copper, and with a number of long weeds,
principally fuci, and a quantity of zoophytes, adhering to differ-
ent parts of the bottom; so that this first experiment was highly
satisfactory, though made under very unfavourable circum-
stances.

The only two instances of vessels which have been recently
coppered, and which have made voyages furnished with protec-
tors, that I have had an opportunity of examining, are the Eliza-
beth yacht, belonging to Earl Darnley, and the Carnebrea
Castle, an Indiaman, belonging to Messrs. Wigram. The yacht
was protected by about 1. part of malleable iron placed in two
masses in the stern. She had been occasionally employed in
sailing, and had been sometimes in harbour, during six months.
When I saw her in November, she was perfectly clean, and the
copper apparently untouched. Lord Darnley informed me that
there never had been the slightest adhesion of either weed or
shell-fish to her copper, but that a few small barnacles had once
appeared on the loose oxide of iron in the neighbourhood of the
protectors, which however were immediately and easily washed
off. The Carnebrea Castle, a large vessel of upwards of 650
tons, was furnished with four protectors, two on the stern, and
two on the bow, equal together to about +1, of the surface of the
copper. She had been protected more than twelve months, and
had made the voyage to Calcutta and back. She came into the
river perfectly bright ; and when examined in the dry dock was
found entirely free from any adhesion, and offered a beautiful
and almost polished surface ; and there seemed to be no greater
wear of copper than could be accounted for from mechanical
causes.

Had these vessels been at rest, I have no doubt there would

1826.] > Preservation of Metals by Electro-chemical Means. 257

‘have been adhesions, at least in Portsmouth or Sheerness har-

bours, where the water is constantly muddy, and where the
smallest irregularity or roughness of surface, from either wear,
or the deposition of calcareous matter, or the formation of oxides
or carbonates, enable the solid matter floating in the water to
rest. There is a ship, the Howe, one of the largest in the Navy,
now lying at Sheerness, which was protected by a quantity of
cast iron judged sufficient to save all her copper, nearly fifteen
months ago. She has not been examined; but I expect and
hope that the bottom will be covered with adhesions, which
must be the case if her copper is not corroded ; but notwith-
standing this, whenever she is wanted for sea, it will only be
necessary to put her into dock for a day or two, scrape her
copper, and wash it with a small quantity of acidulsus water,
and she will be in the same state as if newly coppered.

At Liverpool, as I am informed, several ships have been pro-
tected, and have returned after voyages to the West Indies, and
even to the East Indies. The proportion of protecting metal in
all of them has been beyond what I have recommended, 5 to
=@3 yet two of them have been found perfectly clean, and with
the copper untouched after voyages to Demerara ; and another
nearly in the same state, after two voyages to the same place.
Two others have had their bottoms more or less covered with
barnacles ; but the preservation of the copper has been in all
cases judged complete. The iron has been placed along the
keel on both sides ; and the barnacles, in cases where they have
existed, have been generally upon the flat of the bottom; from
which it may be concluded, that they adhered either to the.
oxide of iron, or the calcareous deposits occasioned by the excess
of negative electricity.

In the navy the proportion adopted has been only 1, of cast
iron, at least for vessels in actual service, and when the object
is more cleanness than the preservation of the copper.

t is very difficult to point out the circumstances which have
rendered results, such as these mentioned with respect to Liver-
pool traders, so different under apparently the same circum-
stances, i. e. why ships should exhibit no adhesions or barnacles
after two voyages, whilst on another ship, with the same quan-
tity of protection, they should be found after a single voyage.*
This may probably depend upon one ship having remained at
rest in harbour longer than another, or having been becalmed
for a short time in shallow seas, where ova of shell fish, or young
shell fish existed ; or upon oxide of iron being formed, and pot
washed off, in consequence of calm weather, and which consoli-
' dating, was not afterwards separated in the voyage. From

_ * The quality of the copper may be another cause.
New Series, vou. x1. .

258 Sir H. Davy on the Preservation of Metals, §c. [ArRit,

what I can learn, however, the chance of a certain degree of
foulness, in consequence of the application of the, full pro-
portion of protecting metal, will not prevent ship owners
from employing this proportion, as the saving of copper
is a very great object; and as long as the copper is sound, no
danger is to be apprehended from worms.

It ought to be kept in mind that the larger a ship, the more
the experiment is influenced by the imperfect conducting power
of the sea water, and consequently the proportion of protecting
metal may be larger without being in excess.

I have mentioned these circumstances because they apply to
ships already coppered, and because I have heard that a Liver-
pool ship, of which it was doubtful whether the copper was ma
state such as would enable her to make another voyage to India
with security, has, by the application of protectors of 7,, made
this voyage,* without apparently any wear of her sheeting; and
that she is now preparing with the same protectors to make
another voyage. ; .

In cases when ships are to be newly sheathed, the experi-
ments which have been detailed in the preceding pages render
it likely, that the most advantageous way of applying protection
will be under, and not over the copper: the electrical cireuit
being made in the sea water passing through the places of june-
tion in the sheets; and in this way every sheet of copper may be
provided with nails of iron or zinc, for protecting them to any
‘extent required. By driving the nail into the wood throug
paper wetted with brine above the tarred paper, or felt; or any
other substance that may be employed, the incipient action will
be diminished ; and there is this great advantage, that a consi-
derable part of the metal will, ifthe protectors are placed in the
centre of the sheet, be deposited and redissolved ; so there is
reason to believe that small masses of metal will act for a great
length of time. Zinc, in consequence of its forming little or no
insoluble compound in brine or sea water, will be preferable to
iron for this purpose ; and whether this metal or iron be used,
the waste will be much less than if the metal was expesed on the
outside: and all difficulties with respect to a proper situation in
this last case are avoided.

The copper used for sheathing should be the purest that can
be obtained; and in being applied to the ship, its surface should
be preserved as smooth and equable as possible: and the nails
used for fastening should likewise be of pure copper; and a
little difference in their thickness and shape will easily compen-
sate for their want cf hardness.

In vessels employed for steam navigation, the protecting

* The Dorothy.

1896] Mr. Moyle on the Temperature of Mines. 259

metal can scarcely be in excess ;* as the rapid motion of these
ships prevents the chance of any adhesions ; and the wear of
the copper by proper protection is diminished more than two~
thirds, f

ArTIcLE V.
On the Temperature of Mines. By M. P. Moyle, Esq.

(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)

GENTLEMEN, Helston, March 1, 1826.

Havine done me the repeated favour of inserting -my coms
munications on the much disputed question as to the heat of the
internal strata of the earth, 1 have to beg a continuance of your
kindness in giving place to the following facts in continuation
of that subject.

In the first place it may be necessary to state, that during the
last summer and autumn, I repeated most of my former experi-
ments on the water in the old and relinquished mines as before
stated (vide Annals, vol. v. N.S.), and almost precisely with the
same results. Suffice it to say on this head, that the greatest
heat found in those collections of water from the depth of 20 to
170 fathoms from the surface was 55° Fahr. in Relistian mine,
in the parish of Gwinear, while the coldest temperature found
was 52° at 134 fathoms in Huel Ann, in Wendron.

I conceived that by selecting a stagnant collection of water in
a deep part of a mine at work, the temperature of which spot
while it was occupied by the workmen was known, might more
effectually give us the true temperature of the surrounding
Strata, than by any other means. J, therefore, selected a winze+
at the 110 fathom level, in Huel Trumpet tin mine, in the parish
of Wendron. This winze was sunk between four and five
fathoms, when it was found necessary to relinquish it from the
water being too quick ; and until the 120 fathom level was driven
far enough under it to drain it of its water.

A bole was bored in the solid granite at the bottom of this
winze two feet deep; a thermometer was put into it, and the
hole was soon found to fill with water from a natural infiltration
without a drop falling into it from above. As this hole filled
with water, the thermometer fell to 56°, but in a few hours it

* Thavementioned in the two last communications on this subject some applications
of the principle; many others will occur. In submurine constructions—to protect wood,
asin piles, from the action of worms, sheathing of copper defended by iron in excess may
be used; when the calcareous matter deposited will gradually form a coating of the
character and firmness of hard stone.

+ A winze is a small shaft sunk simply from one level to another, often required for
ventilation, as well as for the judicious working of a mine.

$2

260 Mr. Moyle on the Temperature of Mines. [Aprit,

rose to 70°, while the air at the bottom of the winze was 72°.
I fastened a line to the thermometer, and allowed it to remain
in the hole. The place was now relinquished, and was in the
course of a few hours full with water, and great care was taken
to prevent any of the water in common to the mine from running
into this reservoir. On the following day this water was found
at the surface 70°, at two fathoms in depth 68°, and at the bottom
67°; at the expiration of nearly three months, it was thought ne-
cessary to examine it again, as.the approach of the end of the 120
fathom level might otherwise destroy the opportunity sought.
The water was now found at all depths to be 54°. A few weeks
after this, the water was found to be sinking, when additional
care was taken to prevent any water from falling into the winze;
when it had sunk to within two feet of the bottom, the thermo-
meter which was allowed to remain in the hole was suddenly
withdrawn, when it was found to be at 54°. Two days after this
period, this hole was dry, and showed the temperature of 70°.

Not willing to rely too much on this single experiment, [
sought another opportunity of repeating it in Huel Vor tin mine,
situated in slate. Here a winze similarly circumstanced to the
one just related occurred at the 124 fathom level. This winze
was sunk just six fathoms before relinquished, at which time the
temperature was 75°; but after being filled with water for about
two months, the registering thermometer indicated only 56°;
and this possibly might be influenced in some measure by its
being found impossible wholly to exclude a fall of water run-
ning into it from above. ;

1 do flatter myself that these experiments tend much to
strengthen my former assertions of the earth in general possess-
ing and preserving the mean annual temperature of the latitude;
and although these experiments give a degree or two above this
mark, we cannot but suppose the local causes of heat in a mine
at full work must tend to influence the results; but it should be
observed that it falls far below what we are taught to expect at
these depths, by those holding a different opinion from. myself.

Should you, or any of your correspondents, who feel en interest
in the present question, be able to suggest any better plans than
those already adopted, I shall be most ready to second their
views, and will, as far as in my power, carry their intimations
into effect. Iam, Gentlemen, your obedient servant,

M. P. Moyte.

1826.] Mr. Moore on graduating glass Hydrometers. 261

ARTICLE VI.

A simple Method of graduating glass Hydrometers.
By Charles Moore, Esq.*

As hydrometers of glass are irregular in shape, they are
usually graduated by immersing them in fluids of different
specific gravities. But as a considerable number of fluids are
required, and as they are liable to change by evaporation, a
different method may be found useful.

In trying the specific gravities of fluids by a bottle of known
capacity, we compare together the weights of equal volumes ;
but in using a hydrometer we compare the volumes of equal
weights ; as the instrument sinks until it displaces a volume of
the fluid equal to itself in weight. Hence we derive a method
of graduating a hydrometer by the help of one fluid only.

a being the standard, is the most convenient, and as its
specific gravity is supposed to be unity, we can easily compute
how much water is equal in volume to a given weight of another
fluid of known specific gravity ; or in other words, with what
weight a hydrometer should be loaded, in order to make it sink
in water at 60°, to the point where that specific gravity should
be marked: the weight of such hydrometer when finished being
determined.

Let the hydrometer be loaded until it would, if permitted, sink
entirely in water, and place in the stem a paper scale divided
into small equal parts, taking care that some one known mark
corresponds with some remarkable part of the stem. Let it
then be suspended from a good small balance, as in taking the
specific gravity of solids, and counterpoised by weights in the
opposite scale. Ifa vessel of water be placed under the hydro-
meter, and weights taken from its counterpoise, it will of course
sink and displace an equal weight of water; and in this simple
and easy manner we can find the proper places for any required
Specific gravities ; which may be written on a new scale, and
put intoa similar position.

For example, suppose it were desirable to make a glass hydro-
meter for acids and saline solutions, beginning with water, and
running upwards as high as the length of the stem would allow ;
suppose also, that the hydrometer when immersed to the upper
end of the stem was found to displace x grains of water; it is
plain that x grains should be the weight of the instrument when
finished: then to find the place where any other specific gravity

y should be marked, y : 1 :: x : then x rp being added
to the counterpoise, the instrument will rise. The vessel should

* From the Dublin Philosophical Journal,

262 Mr. Vivian on the Process of Amalgamation [APRIL,

then be lowered a little to bring the beam horizontal, and the
mark cut by the water noted for specific gravity y.

In the same manner, by simply adding weights to the scale,
as many other specific gravities may be found as are thonght
necessary ; when the scale is to be withdrawn and laid flat, and
the intervals measured with a pair of compasses, and transferred
to a new scale, the true specific gravities wiitten opposite their
proper marks, and the scale put in its place. The instrument
may be loaded a few grains heavy, and nicely adjusted in seal-
ing. It will show true specific gravities without referring to a
table, temperature being attended to.

If it is desired to adjust a hydrometer for spirits, or fluids
lighter than water, then the scale will begin at the lower part of
the stem, and the differences of weight being taken from the
counterpoise, the instrument will sink.

If it is wished to begin at a specific gravity different from
water, suppose at 1:2, for heavy solutions, the only difference
will be in loading the instrument. Thus a hydrometer that
displaces 300 grains of water must be loaded to weigh 360
graius, that it may stand at the same mark in a fluid whose
specific gravity is 1:2. The specific gravity of a body is equal

to its weight divided by its volume a = 1:2, then to find any
other specific gravity, suppose 1:25, = = = = 288, and 300

— 288 = 12. Twelve grains being added to the counterpoise,
the instrument will displace only 288, and ~ ia 2

Artic.te VII.

Description of the Process of Amalgamation as carried on in
Germany. Extracted from a Letter to John Taylor, Esq.
from John Henry Vivian, Esq. hare

(Concluded from p. 201.)

Havine thus traced the ore through various mechanical
operations, I come to the actual process of amalgamation, or the
extraction of the silver by mercury. It will be recollected, that
after calcination the ore is raised to the upper floor of the building
by means ofa shaft and windlass, which is conveniently situated
near the division wall between the calcining house and the mills.
By its progress through the different sets of screens, mills, and
sieves, the ore again reaches the bottom floor, and the same
apparatus is employed for raising it to the third story, which is
a little below the top of the shaft, where the boxes containing
the ore are placed in large iron barrows, and conveyed across

1826.) © ascarried on in Germany. 263

that part of the works containing the screens, to the third divi-
sion of the main building, or that appropriated to the amalgama-
tion process. It is here deposited in an apartment containing
twenty wooden cases, which hold as many charges for the supply
of the amalgamation barrels in the room below. The quantity
of ore that each case will contain is 10 cwt. which, with the
addition of 5 cwt. of mercury, 3 cwt. of water, and afew pounds
of iron, constitutes a charge for a barrel,

The barrels are two feet eight inches in length, and about two
feet and a half in diameter in the centre. They are well secured
by iron hoops, and have a bung-hole, five inches in diameter. A
wooden stopper, having a small opening in the centre, fits into
the bung-hole, and is fastened down by a band of iron, anda
screw. At one end is an iron plate with teeth, by which motion
is communicated to the barrels; and each barrel may be
detached when required to be stopped.

There are twenty of these barrels in the Freyberg works,
arranged in four rows; they are all driven by one overshot
wheel ; and the whole may be instantaneously stopped, as well
as each barrel singly.

I have before stated the weight of the different substances
forming a charge for a barrel. 1 shall now make a few remarks
on the manner of filling it, At the bottom of each hopper, or
case, in which the sifted calcined ore is deposited, is a wooden
tube, to which is attached a piece of sacking, with a mouth-
piece of metal that exactly fits the bung-hole of the barrel. The
ore is passed from the hopper through this tube into the barrel,
by withdrawing a plate at the bottom of the case. To prevent
the possibility of any loss of ore, a square frame is placed over
the bung-hoie, through which the lower part of the tube passes.

The water is supplied from leaden cisterns, one of which, con-
taining exactly the quantity required for a charge, is placed over
each barrel. Each cistern has a cock, to which a pipe may be
attached, that communicates with the bung-hole of the barrel.

The mercury is conveyed to the barrels from two iron vases
placed in an apartment adjoining the amalgamation room, by an
iron pipe, which passes between each double row of barrels.
Opposite to each barrel is a piece of pipe, so arranged that it
may be turned, and by means of a projecting branch in the
centre, may serve a barrel on each side; the mercury being
conducted into the barrels by a wooden launder placed under the
mouth of the pipe, the openings to all the other pipes being at
the same time turned upwards. The requisite quantity of mer-
cury for a charge is put into the vase, which has a cock at the
bottom; and on asignal being made by the men at the barrels,
the cock is turned, and the quicksilver flows along the pipe to
the opening communicating with the barrel to be charged.

The iron necessary for the operation is in small bars, which

264 Mr, Vivian on the Process of Amalgamation [ApPpRit,

are constantly kept in the barrels, fresh pieces being added as
the metal becomes dissolved.

In charging the barrels, the water is first admitted, then the
ore, and with these the barrels are put in motion, and so conti-
nued for about an hour and a half. At the expiration of this
time, if the ore and water are found to be well mixed, and of a
proper consistency, the barrel being somewhat more than two-
thirds full, the mercury is added, after which the barrels are
made to revolve at the rate of 16 or 18 times in a minute, for
about 18 hours. ‘The contents of the barrels are then examined,
and if the process be found to have gone on satisfactorily, they
are filled with water, and turned slowly fora few minutes. The
small aperture in the centre of the bung before mentioned, is
then opened, and a wooden pipe fitted into it. This pipe has
attached to it at right angles a leather pipe, which is furnished
with a cock and a mouth-piece of metal, and may be made to
communicate by means of a wooden pipe, with a range of gutters
laid under the floor of the room. The apparatus being thus
arranged, the bung of the barrel is turned downward, the cock
is opened on the silver-holding mercury, which, from its great
specific gravity, had collected at the bottom of the mixture, flows
through the pipe into the gutters, which lead to a filtering sack,
suspended over a stone trough, in an apartment on the ground
floor of the fourth division of the building.

The mercury which bas not combined with the silver is here
separated as it passes through the filter, either by its specific
gravity, or bya slight pressure of the hand on the sack whilst
the amaigam remains within it. The latter is composed of six
parts of mercury and one of silver, and is of such a consistency
as to retain an Impression made by the finger. When it is found
‘thet the greater part of the silver-holdmg mercury has passed
out of the barrel, the cock is turned; the apparatus removed ;
and the remaining contents of the barrels discharged through
the large bung-hole into the gutters, which empty into large tubs
in the floor below. Whilst this operation is performing, care is
taken not to allow the pieces of iron contained in the barrels to
pass through the bung hole. These gutters are then washed
with water from a pipe connected with a cistern near the water
wheel, and the amalgamation process begins again. The time
occupied in filling and emptying the barrels is about six hours,
making the whole time of the process twenty-four hours.

i shall now offer some practical remarks on the most import-
ant points to be attended to in concluding this operation. And
first with respect to the cunsistency of the mixture in the barrels.
This, which may appear at first a trifling object in itself, is of the
utmost consequence; for if the mass be in too fluid a state, the
mercury will remain at the bottom of the barrel, without being
brought into contact with the ore; whilst, on the other hand, if
the mass be too thick, the particles of metal will not move freely

1826.] . as carried onin Germany. 265

through the mass, but will remain in a great degree stagnant. If
the mixture is found to be too much diluted, it must be corrected
by adding a little ore; ifit be too thick, a little water should be
introduced. Attention must also be paid to the velocity with
which the barrels are made to revolve ; as by any material devia-
tion from that degree, which, from experience, has been found
best calculated to produce the desired result, nearly the same
effect will follow as when the mass is improperly mixed. Ifthe
barrels are made to revolve too rapidly, the particles of mercury
will collect round the sides. The consistency of the mixture
should be occasionally ascertained by stopping a barrel, opening
the bung-hole, and dipping a stick into it (if, on withdrawing the
rod, the ore drops slowly from it, it is considered in a proper
state) ; and before the process is completed, a sample of the ore
should be taken, and tried in a crucible, and the operation conti-
nued if found to contain any considerable portion of silver.
Attention should also be paid to the state of the mercury in the
mixture, which should be minutely disseminated throughout the
mass, and the globules not larger in size than the head of a pin.

After the barrels have been a few hours in motion, it will be
found that the temperature of the mixture has been considerably
increased ; and as heat materially assists the amalgamation, this
mode of obtaining it by revolving barrels, without the aid of ex-
ternal fires, to which they were formerly obliged to have recourse,
is one of the greatest discoveries that were made by De Born.
I should have observed, that to De Born, I believe, is also due
the merit of organizing, the system of previous calcination of
the ore with salt; although the mode of operation was improved
by Gellert in the construction of the Freyberg works.

On the opening of a barrel, a strong acid smell may be per-
ceived, and particularly towards the end of the process. This
arises from the chemical changes that take place; the muriates
which were formed by the calcination are decomposed ; the iron
unites with the muriatic acid; and the metallic silver, and a
portion of copper, or other metals, contained in the ore, combine
witli the mercury. The muriate of iron, being a soluble salt,
becomes dissolved in the water, as do the sulphate and the other
salts of soda.

It is obvious that a deficiency of iron in the barrel will prevent
the decomposition of the muriate of silver from taking place ;
care should therefore be had, to keep a proper supply of iron in
the barrels.

The next process that requires to be noticed, is the separation
of the two metals contained in the amalgam, which is effected by
their different degrees of fusibility. The amalgam is exposed
in a furnace of a peculiar description, to a certain degree of heat,
when the mercury is sublimated, or distilled, and the silver
remains,

When the furnace is charged and arranged, the weight of amal-

266 Mr. Vivian on the Process of Amalgamation [Apnit,

gam onthe plates being about 3 ewt.the fire is lighted over the cast
iron cap or bell, and astream of wateris introduced into the cistern
which contains the iron pan. The fuel first used is turf, but
towards the end of the process they employ charcoal, with
which they fill up the whole of the vacant space within the case
of the furnace. As the iron bell becomes heated, the mercury
is volatilized, and falling to the lower part of the cap becomes
condensed, and collects in the iron pan, the water in which is
kept cool by the stream before noticed that flows through the
wooden cistern in which the pan stands. |
In this process every thing depends on a gradual increase of
temperature, and on a proper degree of heat being ultimately
given, Ifthe furnace is heated too rapidly, a portion of the
mercury will remain united with the silver, which must infallibly
happen if any part of the compound is fused ; or too great a fire
may also occasion another bad effect—a portion of silver may
be sublimated with the mercury, On the other hand, a sufficient
degree of heat must be given to separate all the mercury ; for
if any portion remain combined with the silver, it would be lost
in the testing process that follows. The distilling process lasts
from eight to ten hours; the person who attends upon it knows
when the whole of the quicksilver is extracted, by the cessation
of the sound made by the drops of that metal falling into the
water as it is condensed. On the following day, when the fur-
nace has become thoroughly cool, the outer door is opened, the
cap raised, the mercury in the receiver collected, and the silver
‘on the plates removed. The mercury is raised by a windlass, in
small boxes fitting into a square case or kibble, containing all
together about 5 cwt. and deposited in the iron vases in the
apartment over the distilling house, and adjoining the amalga-
mation room. It may contain a small portion of silver, but that
is of no importance, as it is again used for amalgamation with
that part of the quicksilver taken from the barrels, which had
passed through the filters as before described. The loss of
mercury in the distilling operation is about one-third of a loth
to the mark of fine silver obtained, which is nearly two per cent.
on the quantity used. The silver on the plates should be in
ragged porous pieces. Some specimens are in fancy forms,
resembling trees, &c.; and may be purchased at the works on
paying the value of the silver. The metal is for the most part
of the colour of silver; but it is frequently tarnished with a
yellow or brown tint. It contains in fine silver from -12 to 13
foths in the mark, or about 75 per cent. The other metals that
remain combined with it are such as were contained in the ore;
as copper, cobalt, nickel, antimony, &c. To reduce the amal-
gamated silver to a compact state, and of uniform fineness, the
pieces taken from the plates are melted in a Passau crucible
previous to being refined, which is done at the neighbouring
smelting-work, ‘The deliveries from the amalgamation-work to

1826.] as carried onin Germany. 267.

the smelting-work take place at the end of each fortnight.
The contents of each deiivery in fine silver is generally from
1100 to 1200 marks. ;

I shall now proceed to describe the washing process, or that
practised on the residuum in the barrels after the silver-holding
mercury is removed. This hody of stuff, as 1 before observed,
is passed down into.large vats on the ground floor of the build-
ing. It consists of the earthy parts of the ore, in which are
some small particles of mercury intermixed, and water holding
sulphate of soda, and other salts in solution. The main object
here is to collect the metallic particles from the mass of ore;
and to effect this, fresh portions of water are added to the stuff
discharged from the barrels, and then worked about in large vats
‘or tubs. In each vat works an upright spindle with arms, and
attached to the latter by several plates or bars of iron, These
vats are furnished with eight plugs one above the other ; so that
as the heavier metallic particles subside, the waste or earthy
matter may be drawn off at the different plugs in succession,
beginning with the top. Those near the bottom are not opened
until the mercury there collected is removed, which only takes
place once in three or four weeks. The vats are about six feet
in diameter at the top, and from five tu six feet in depth. One
of these vats is attached to each range of five barrels. The time
aliotted for the washing process is twelve hours,

The principal points to which the atteation of those conduct-
ing this operation is to be directed are, first, the careful exami-
nation of the stuff, previous to its being let off at each plug, for
particles of mercury: this may be done by diluting a small
quantity in a wooden trough. Secondly, so to regulate the
quantity of water inthe mixture, that the coarser particles of the
ore may not subside with the mercury, which will be the case if
the stuff be too much diluted ; and at the same time to avoid
having the mercury kept in suspension in the mass, which must
happen if it be not diluted in a sufficient degree; for it is
evident that unless the particles of mercury be disentangled from
the earthy matters, they will not subside by their greater specific
gravity, which is the object of the operation. Thirdly, to regu-
late properly the velocity of the machinery; for too quick a
motion will prevent the particles of mercury from subsiding ;
whilst, if the motion be too slow, the heavier particles of the
ore will fall to the bottom with those of the mercury. The
reason for having the rods which connect the cross bars of the
revolving machine in the vat of iron is, that any mercury which
may have been oxidized during the amalgamation process may
be reduced to the metallic state, the oxygen possessing a great
affinity for iron. A portion of mercury occasionally appears in
this last-described process, and the other processes in which it
is brought in contact with water, in the form of a white foam
floating on the surface. This may arise either from a portion of

268 Mr. Vivian on the Process of Amalgamation {Aprit,

the metal being oxidized, or from its particles, finely dissemi-
nated, becoming intimately mixed with the particles of water.
In this last case the foam should be left to settle, when the
quicksilver will collect together. The waste from the vats is
conducted through underground gutters out of the works, and
received in pits. In these the earthy matter is allowed to
subside, and the saline solution is drawn off to be employed
elsewhere. As a check on the operation in the works, the
deposit which is received into the waste pits should be occa-
sionally assayed for silver, as well as examined for particles of
mercury. The contents of the waste pits are thrown from
thence into the river, and carried off by the first flood. I
beheve it is the custom at Freyberg to assay the residue from
each vat, and I understood it usually contains a small portion of
silver; perhaps from -3, to } of a loth in the centner.

I recollect its being mentioned to me in [815 as a singular
circumstance, that the ten barrels on the north side of the amal-
gamation-room invariably yielded a cleaner residue than those
on the south side, although the charges and treatment were in
every respect the same. As I felt incredulous as to the correct-
ness of this assertion, I examined the assay books at the works;
and it certainly did appear as stated, that the residuum from the
barrels on the south side contained invariably a small quantity
of silver more than those on the north side.

It now only remains for me to make a few remarks on the uses
to which the saline solution drawn off from the waste pits may
be applied. Various experiments have been made with a view
to ascertain the most advantageous mode of using this liquid.
{t has been sometimes applied to the preparation of maaure, by
decomposing the sulphate of soda with lime, and thus forming
an insoluble salt, or artificial gypsum: and it was remarked to
me by Prof. Lampadius, that the action of this salt as a manure
appeared to be increased by the iron precipitated from the mu-
riate, by its acid uniting with the soda of the Glauber salt, which
becomes highly oxidized by exposure to the atmosphere. During
my last visit to Freyberg, Prof. Lampadius was engaged in some
experiments for applying the sulphate of soda, obtained’ by
evaporation, to olass-making, instead of potash; and from some
specimens of white glass, &c. showed me, it appeared that the
experiment might possibly be successful.

The general arrangement of the interior of the principal
building of the Freyberg amalgamation-work may be collected
from the description given of the different processes; from
which it will appear that much labour and expense may be saved
by facilitating the communications between the different parts of
the works. By means of a shaft and machine for raising the
ore to the different stories of the building, and apertures in the
floors for letting it down, as it may be required in the different

1826.].- as carried on in Germany. 269

processes, waste is avoided, and the temptation to pilfering of
the valuable metals by the workmen is diminished. A short
review of these arrangements may not, therefore, be improper,
as thereby the connexion between the different parts of the
establishment may be better understood.

_ The works consist of three main buildings, which form three
sides of a quadrangle; the fourth side of which forms the
entrance. In the centre is the forcing engine, for the purpose of
supplying water in case of fire. One of the three buildings is
much shorter than the other two, and contains only furnaces and
a charging floor. The others contain each the same number of
furnaces and conveniences for mixing and charging the ore, and
in addition thereto machinery and apparatus required in the
other processes. The principal building containing the barrels
may be in length about 200 feet by about 48 feet in breadth. It
is divided by stone walls into four divisions. ‘The first division,
which is by far the largest, contains on the ground-floor a set
of calcining furnaces ; over these is a charging floor, and above
that a salt magazine. Next to this is the part used for milling.
This contains on the upper, or fourth story, a coarse riddle, and
below it a fine riddle. Under these are five mills, extending
with the sieves attached thereto to the floor. The third division
contains, on the third story, a floor from whence the amalgama-
tion barrels are charged; on the second floor the barrels; and
under these, on the ground floor, the washing tubs. In the
fourth division is a storehouse for quicksilver; on the second
story, and under this, the four distilling furnaces. The third and
fourth stories of the building, it is to be observed, are in the roof,
which is made very steep, the walls of the work being only two
floors in height.

In describing the machinery, it is not necessary to be very
minute. It consists of cog wheels and wooden lanterns, an
arrangement very commonly adopted on the continent, but
evidently inferior to the machinery of this country, as the bear-
ing of the wooden cogs on the round staves of the hollow
lanterns cannot be as true as when two well constructed tooth
wheels work together; nor are the face wheel and the lantern
pinion at all equal to our bevil gear. ‘The construction of the
mills is far less simple than that of our grist mills, in which
several pairs of stones are often driven by a single spur wheel.
The whole of the machinery is driven by water. I[n the principal
building before referred to are two large overshot wheels, of
which one works the screens, mills, and sieves, and the other
the barrels.

The arrangement for the latter is as follows: Attached to the
shaft of the barrel water wheel is a large cog wheel that works
two lantern pinions placed aboveit. On the shait, from each of
these pinion wheels are five small cog wheels, so arranged that

970 Mr. Vivian on the Process of Amalgamation, &c. [Arrit,

each wheel works two barrels. Thus the whole of the twenty
barrels are made to revolve by one water wheel, which is about
28 feetin diameter. The washing apparatus under the barrels is
worked by a separate water wheel. Every part of the ma-
chinery is carefully attended to, and kept in the very best order.

I shall conclude by a general recapitulation of the power of
the work, and the extent of the operations :—

The three buildings just described, with one or two of a
smaller description that are contiguous to them, contain the
following apparatus.

A large ore house.

12 calcining furnaces arranged in three sets, with a charging
floor and salt magazine to each.

2 coarse riddles.

2 fine riddles.

14 mills.

20 amalgamation barrels.

4 mercury distilling furnaces.

4 washing vats.

- The quantity of ore operated on annually amounts to about
3000 tons ; and its contents in fine silver nay be estimated at
from 28,000 to 29,000 marks. _

The annual consumption of mercury is calculated at 25 cwt,
which will be in proportion to the silver obtained as about | to 5,
as mentioned by Humboldt. The mercury used is brought from
Prague, andis probably from the mines at Idria.

The salt employed, in the proportion of 10 per cent. on the
quantity of ore amalgamated, may be taken at 300 tons. It is
obtained from the Saxon salt-works at Arten.

The consumption of iron in the barrels is from three to four
tons per annum. .

The quantity ofthe various substances used as fuel, Lampadius
calculated, in 1802, to be equai to 52 cubic feet of charcoal to
each quintal of ore; and the amount of wages on 100 quintals
of ore at 171 rix-dollars. I do not recollect having seen any
calculation of the total cost per ton of ore, incurred in extracting
the silver by mercury ; but, I believe, the charges are nearly the
same asin smelting. The chief advantage of amalgamation at
Freyberg is the saving of fuel; for if all the ores of the district
were smelted, the quantity of charcoal required would be so great
that the price of that article would necessarily advance.

I have thus I believe noticed the most material points relating
to the Freyberg amalgamation-work, and the operations carried.
on therein. I have only again to repeat, that I shall feel truly
gratified if these remarks should prove of use to your friends
engaged in mining speculation on the other side of the Atlantic.
Should you conceive that any further information I ean give
imay be of service, | beg you will freely command me.

1826.] Sir C. L. Gidsecke’s Account, &c. 971

ArticLe VIII.

Account of a Mineralogical Excursion to the Counties of Galway
and Mayo. BySir Charles Lewis Giésecke.* (Communicated
by a Member of the R. D. 8.)

County of Galway.

I rert Dublin on the 14th of August, in conformity to
the directions of the Royal Dublin Society, and proceeded to the
County of Galway. I made my first excursion to Marble Hill,
and went the following day towards Woodford, on the new road
towards the Shannen, constructed by Mr. Killaly. Part of this
country consists of diluvial land, in which I found immense
blocks of beautiful conglomerate, consisting of fragments of rose-
red quartz and hornstone, of a dark leek-green jasper, and large
blocks of mica slate. Near Woodford there is a very extensive
stratum of meadow iron ore, which was worked by English
miners about a century ago, and afforded very good cast-iron,
which was shipped on the river Shannon. The turf, which
covers the stratum of the iron ore occurs in enormous abun-
dance ; it approaches to moor-coal, and is of the best quality.

The day after my arrival in Galway I went on an excursion to
Cunnamara. The black limestone is visible every where along
the road to Oughterard, a small town five miles from Galway,
which is visited very much during the summer season by the
gentry from Galway and its neighbourhood, on account of its
Salubrious spa. As soon as you leave Oughterard, the junction
of the granite with the limestone is visible. In the evening I
arrived at Ballinahinch, the residence of Thomas Martin, Esq.
who received me with his usual kindness.

He accompanied me on the following day to what is called
the green marble quarry, but which is rather a quarry of precious
serpentine, belonging to his estates. It is situated in a valley
extending from the northward to the west peak of Lettery, to
as far as the middle of the place called the Twelve Pins, a series
of very acuminated coherent mountains. I found following up
the river, or rather torrent, traces of this serpentine at a distance
of a mile from the quarry. The rivulet, which took a serpentine
direction, has disclosed to the eye extensive strata of most
beautiful granular marble, of a pearl white colour, mixed with
rosé-red, yellowish-red, blood-red, and biuish-grey. It alter-
hates with greenstone. The large serpentine quarry, where Mr.
Martin keeps from 150 to 170 labourers employed in blasting,
cutting, and sawing the immense blocks, is of an extraordinary
extent, and seems to be inexhaustible. ‘The serpentine, similar

* From the Appendix to the Report of the Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Socie!
March 2, 1826. 7° ot: ™ s 19

272 Sir C. L. Giéseck’s-Account of a Mineralogical [Aprit,

to the Serpentino Antico of Italy, is mixed with steatite, fine
granular limestone and stripes of asbestus, and occurs in blocks
sometimes of the length of 12 and 13 feet, and three or four tons
in weight. It is impossible to describe the immense varieties of
delineations and shades and colours of this beautiful stone,
which attract the eye of the beholder; the serpent-like delinea-
tions of some of them must excite particular admiration. Others
are coloured in spiral forms, others are dotted and spotted with
different shades of green, grey, and yellow. ‘Solid masses of an
enormous size may be raised. Mr. Martin has already quarried
out an immense quantity, part of which is cut in slabs for tables,
and which are ready for sale. He has also made a road from
the quarry to the port, a distance of six miles, but it would
require arailroad for large blocks. Higher up towards the north-
west of the Twelve Pins, there occurs a kind of serpentine which
contains but very little of the grey and white granular limestone.
The limestone seems here rather to form small beds in the
serpentine. I found along the river large blocks of granite with
imbedded and nine-sided prisms of tourmaline of a pitch-black
colour, similar to that of Killiney. The granite of the country
is fine and coarse granular, very durable; and abounds in felspar
of a flesh-red aud reddish-brown colour; beds of felspar occur in
it. Another quarry cf serpentine, which was worked formerly
by Mr. D’Arcy, of Clifden, is now in the possession of the
Hibernian Mining Company. On another day I went bya boat
to the black marble quarry four miles from Galway, which is
worked by Mr. Ireland, and to another at Merlin Park, the
property of Mr. Blacke : the latter is of the most beautiful jet
black colour, and very transparent; the former is rather of a
slaty structure, and on that account easier worked. It contains
numerous petrefactions, particularly of gryphites, and is some-
times intersected by small veins of fluor, As the quarry is
situated close to the shore, the marble is carried in great quan-
tities to the neighbouring country, and also to London,

County of Mayo.

I entered the County Mayo on the road leading through the
little town of Cong, a place remarkable on account of its subter-
raneous springs and extensive caves, through which rapid
streams run in different directions. The rocks consist of fine
granular slaty sandstone, in which there are found in nests most:
beautiful specimens of perfectly transparent glass-white and
yellowish-white calcareous spar of 2 rhomboidal shape, not
inferior to those known by the name of Icelandic double refract-
ing spar. The walls and the roofs of the caves are covered and
decorated with calcareous stalactites of greyish-white and
yellowish-grey colours, and of different shapes. In the river
close te a mill there is a whirlpool, and near to the church fine

1826.]' Excursion to the Counties of Galway and Mayo. 278

ruins of a monastery. I proceeded by the Neal and Ballinrobe
to Westport, where I arrived the same evening. The rocks all
along the road consist of greyish-black compact limestone,
interspersed with spots and veins of white calcareous spar.

_ The following morning 1 went to a lead mine called Shefiry,
twelve miles to the south-west of Westport, which is worked at
present by the Hibernian Mining Company, and is on the estate
of the Marquis of Sligo. The mountains consist of smoke-grey
and greenish-grey clay slate, alternating with chloriteslate very
much decomposed on its surface, and intersected by veins of
yellowish-white common quartz of different breadths. The vein
of lead ore, which runs in a south-westerly direction, is opened
at a distance of about 400 paces from the new road constructed
by Mr. Bald, where has been driven a level of about twenty-
seven fathoms. The lead ore (common coarse granular galena)
runs through the clay slate, which is of an ash-grey colour, and
somewhat decomposed. It occurs partly massive, partly crystal-
lized in cubes, and is accompanied by copper pyrites, partly mas-
sive, partly crystallized in rhomboids and three-sided pyramids,
sometimes pavonized. The other minerals, which are found in the
vein along with the ore, are common white quartz, massive, and
crystallized in six-sided prisms, brownspar of a yellowish-white
colour, prase, yellow iron ochre, barytes, and a yellowish-green.
earthy substance. There are scattered about in the diluvial
land fragments of leek green flint, hornstone, and common
quartz. I went along the road through the chain of mountains,
which consists of clay slate, to the fishing lodge of the Marquis
of Sligo down to Killery bay, which separates the Counties of
Galway and Mayo.

The rock that borders the coast of the county of Mayo in
Killery Bay is hornstone porphyry, of a liver-brown colour, with
small white and reddish-white crystals of felspar, and veins of
green talc.. It is covered in some places by a coarse quartz-
conglomerate. I was informed that not far from the village
Bonduragh there’ was an iron mine worked about thirty years
ago.
On one of the following days I made an excursion to the Reek
and Croagh Patrick, an extensive mass of rocks, which consist of
mica slate, with overlying common serpentine. In the latter
there is imbedded common leek-green talc, and greyish-green
amianthus.

Achill Island.

I proceeded in a boat belonzing to the Marquis of Sligo,
who very kindly assisted me in my excursion, across Clew Bay
to Achill Island, twenty miles from Westport. The vast moun-
tain tracts of this island consist of mica slate of a very fine slaty
texture, with beds of the rock, called by the late Werner white-~

New Series, vou. x1. T

974 Sir C. L, Gidsecke’s Account of a Mineralogical [Aprit,

stone. I stopped fora night in a cabin, and made, on the fol
lowing day, accompanied by some inhabitants of the island, a
pedestrian excursion over the mountains, to the most western
point of it, called Achill Head, a distance of ten miles, where I
arrived late in the evening, and remaired in the cabin of a water
guard. The following morning I went to the place described to
me, where the mineral, known here by the name of Achillstone,
is to be found. The substance so called is an amethyst-quartz
of different shades of colour, passing from amethyst-biue into
violet-blue and rose-red, and forms a vein of from one to two feet
broad, which is on its outgoing very much scattered and broken
into pieces. It runs in 4 southerly direction through mica-slate
of a coarse slaty undulated texture, which contains much quartz.
The amethyst bordering the matrix is in bacillar and cuneiform
district concretions, which terminate in six-sided pyramids. In
some places are found broken particles of rock crystal and com-
mon quartz of a greyish-brown tinge. At the foot of the moun-
tain a very coarse granular iron-shot quartz conglomerate, mixed
with brown common jasper and hornstone, covers part of the
mica-slate, which is converted into a grey greasy earthy sub-
stance, not unlike to powdered graphite.. I could not trace any
other metallic substance on the spot except copper-pyrites, dis-
seminated in common quartz.

Having now been nine weeks on my tour, and having latterly
been exposed to a good deal of fatigue, and the weather having
broke, I was reluctantly compelled to relinquish my examination
of the remainder of this interesting country.

To this I annex a descriptive catalogue of the specimens, 105
i number, which I obtained on my journey, and which I propose
should form a part of the new Irish collection.

—Za—

A Descriptive Catalogue of the Mineral Substances found in the
Counties of Galway and Mayo.

County of Galway.
No, '
1—2, Quartz conglomerate, of rose-red and blood-red colour,
with hornstone, from Woodford.
3—4. Dark leek-green jasper, from the same place.
4—6. Mica-slate, approaching to avanturine, from ditto.
7—10. Bog iron-ore (meadow iron-ore, Jameson), of a blackish
and yellowish-brown colour, from a place near
Woodford.
11—12. Black turf, approaching to moor coal, covering the bog
irou-ore.
13—14. Pearl-grey limestone, from Marble Hill.
15—18. Datk velvet-black limestone, with fragments of shells,

1826.] Excursion to the Counties of Galway and Mayo. 275

transmuted into calcareous spar, from Oughterard,

Cunnamara.

19—20. Granite from the junction with the limestone, near
Oughterard.

21—22. Mica-slate, from the mountains between Oughterard
and Ballinahinch.

23—24. Granite, from the same place.
25—28. Fine granular limestone (marble), of pearl-grey colour,
mixed with rose-red, from the rivulet near the
Twelve Pins.

29—30. Precious serpentine, of yellowish-green colour, cloudy,

mixed with pearl-grey calcareous spar, from Balli-
* nahinch.

31—32. Ditto, of dark leek-green colour, undulatingly striped,
with some white calcareous spar, from the same
place.

33—d4. Ditto, of leek-green colour, mixed with brown and
grey, from ditto.

35—36. Ditto, of sulphur-yellow colour, mixed with grey and

white, from ditto.

37—40. Four other beautiful varieties, with cloudy delineations,
from ditto.

41—42. Tourmaline, of pitch-black colour, imbedded in granite,
from Penacuola.

43—44, Chalcedony, passing into flint of yellowish-grey colour,
from the same place.

45—46. Black limestone, from Ireland quarry.

47—48. Violet-blue fluor, in black limestone, from ditto.

49—50. Black limestone, with gryphites, from ditto.

County of Mayo.

51. Glass white double refracting spar, transparent, from Cong.

52. Ditto, yellowish-white, from the same place.

53—54. Yellowish-white and greyish-white stalactite, from the
cave, near Cong.

5556. Greyish-black limestone, with traversing veins of calca-
reous spar, from Ballinrobe.

57—58. Smoke-grey clay-slate, from the lead mines, near
Shetiry.

59. Chlorite-slate, of leek-green colour, with much quartz, from
the same place.

60—64. Massive galena, of lead-grey colour, of different texture,
from the same place.

65. Common galena, crystallized in cubes, with clay-slate, from
thesame place. “

66—68. Copper pyrites of brass-yellow colour, accompanying
massive galena, with clay-slate, from the same place.

T

~

276 Sir C, L. Giesecke’s Account, &c. [APRIL,

69—70. Ditto, in rhomboids, and three-sided pyramids, accom-
panied by galena, massive quartz.

71—72. Common quartz, pearl-grey, from the same place.

73. Ditto, somewhat iron-shot.

74—75. Calcareous spar, of yellowish-white colour, massive,
with copper pyrites.

76. Calcareous spar, in six-sided prisms, accompanied by cop-
per pyrites.

77. Brown spar, massive, and in small rhomboids of yellowish-
white colour.

78. Brown spar, of rose-red colour,’ with some calcareous spar
and pyrites.

79. Leek-green quartz (prase), mixed with common quartz.

80. Yellow iron ochre, earthy.

81. Massive barytes, of pearl-grey colour.

82. Earthy chlorites, of yellowish-green colour, with quartz.

83. Leek-grey flint.

84, Hornstone porphyry, of liver-brown colour, with felspar.

85. Coarse quartz conglomerate.

86—88. Common serpentine, of leek-green colour, with common
talc, from the Reek.

89. Slaty talc, of leek-green colour, from ditto.

90. Amianthus, forming narrow veins in common serpentine,
from ditto.

91. Asbestus, of pearl-grey colour, from ditto.

Achill Island.

92. Mica-slate, with white quartz, very thin, slaty, and silver-
white mica.
93. White stone, of pearl-grey colour.
94—95. Amethyst quartz, of violet-blue colour in bacillar dis-
tinct concretions, with mica. |"
96. Amethyst quartz, of amethyst-blue colour, cuneiform’ frag
». . ments, with mica.
97—98. Amethyst quartz, of pale. violet-blue, and amethyst-
‘blue colour, in isolated crystals, with some mica. *
99—104. Varieties of colours of amethyst quartz.
105. Quartz conglomerate, of coarse granular construction.

1826.] ~ On the Poison of the Toad. 277

ARTICLE IX.
On the Poison of the Toad.
(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)

GENTLEMEN,

Havine called to make inquiries about a sick friend, I found
the second volume of Paris’s and Fonblanque’s Medical Juris-
prudence lying upon his table; and wishing to kill a little time,
I took it up, and accidentally opened it at p. 139, where, to my
astonishment, I found an account of the supposed poison of the
toad, very similar tothat which [had just readin the Annals, as the
results of a paper lately given by Dr. Davy to the Royal Society.
If it is not an impertinent question, may I be allowed to ah
whether it is usual to present any memoir to that Society which
contains matter already in print’? I have sent you the extract to
which I allude; and I think by giving it a place in your journal,
your readers will be gratified ; for it affords a very good account
of the question at issue. In making this request, I hope I .do
not intrude. I remain, your constant reader, PoP,

——

“With respect to the poisons of Locusta, all cotemporary
writers speak of the venom of the toad as the fatal ingredient of
her potions, and in the Alexipharmaca of Dioscorides we find
the symptoms described, which are said to be produced by it ; *
but what is very extraordinary, the belief of the ancients on this
matter was all but universal. Pliny is express on the subject ;
/Etius describes two kinds of this reptile,+ the latter of which,
as Dr. Badham has suggested, was probably the frog, as well
from the epithet, as that he ascribes deleterious powers only to
the former. Itis scarcely necessary to observe that this ancient
belief has descended inco later times; we find Sir Thomas
Browne treating such an opinion as one of the vulgar errors ; and
we have before alluded to the legend of king John having been
pecnss by a wassail bowl in which matter extracted froma
iving toad was said to have been infused. In still later times,
we have heard of a barrel of beer poisoned by the same reptile
having found its way into it. Borelli and Valisnieri maintain
that it is perfectly harmless, and state that they had seen it eaten
with impunity. Spielman t expresses the same opinion, “ Minus
recte itaque effectus venenati a bufonibus metuuntur.” Franck,§

% “ eniepey oidnucila cwcilog, pela wyodlylog exilelayerng. Sugmrorty nas SvomPsx odudeves
To gloun, nas Avypog avlosy trelos, eviole Se xou omepuailog amoonlpelog Exapioige”

T le xwpos n apSoyyoss 2. Pwvylixos.

} Instit. Mater. Medic. p, 176. ,

§ Manuale di Tossicologia, p. 79, 245,

>

278° On the Poison of the Toad. fApRit,

on the contrary, accuses Gmelin of too much precipitancy in
rejecting the beliefrespecting toad-poison.* Modern naturalists
recognise no poisonous species of toad ; even the most formida-
ble of the species, to appearance, that of Surinam, is said to be
perfectly harmless.

“If we may venture to offer a conjecture upon this subject,
we are inclined to consider the origin of this opinion to have
been derived from the frequency with which the toad entered
into the composition of spells or charms, into philtres or love
potions, and which, like the bat and the owl, most probably
derived its magical character from the gloom and solitude of its
habitation. Shakspeare has accordingly introduced this reptile
into the witches’ enchanted cauldron, in Macbeth.

s¢ ¢ Round about the cauldron go ;
In the poison’d entrails throw.
Toad that under coldest stone
Days and nights hast thirty-one
Swelter’d venom sleeping got,
Boil thou first i’ the charmed pot !* ”

- This opinion receives further strength when it-is considered
how frequently poisons were administered under the insidious
form of charms or incantations.+

“It has, however, been shown by late experiments that the
toad has, under particular circumstances, the power of ejecting
from the surface of the body an acrid secretion which excoriates
the hands of those that come in contact with it; and this fact
may perhaps have assisted in supporting the general belief
respecting the poisonous nature of this reptile. Pelletier has
ascertained, that this corrosive matter contained in the vesicles
which cover the skin of the common toad (Rana Bufo), has a
yellow colour, and an oily consistence, and to consist of,—Ist,
an acid partly united to a base, and constituting 4,th part of the
whole. 2d, very bitter fatty matter. 3d, an animal matter

bearing some analogy to gelatine.—(Medical Jurisprudence,

vol. 11. p. 139.)

[ Note.—We have received the above letter from a correspon-
dent, which, with the extract from Dr. Paris’s Medical Jurispru-
dence alluded to, we have no hesitation in laying before our
readers. At the same time we must observe, in justice to Dr.
Davy (and we are certain our correspondent will agree with us),
that no suspicion of intentional plagiarism can attach to him, as

* See also Istituzioni di Med. For. di G. Tortosa, vol. ii. p. 67, and authorities there —

cited. ;

++ This fact may be illustrated by ancient as well as modern records; from the poi-
soned tunic of the Centaur Nessus, to the treacherous powders of the diabolical Mary
Bateman,

a ee en. oe

1826.) On the Reciprocal Decomposition of Bodies. 279

author of the paper, On the Poison of the Toad, lately read before
‘the Royal Society (see Annals of Philosophy, for Feb. p.137.) Dr.
Davy has been absent from England, on professional duty, for
some years, and is still abroad, we believe at Malta; and it is
not extraordinary that, so circumstanced, he should not have had
access either to Dr. Paris’s work, or to any other in which Pelle-
tier’s experiments on the poison of the toad are recorded.—

C.and P.]

ARTICLE X.
On the Reciprocal Decomposition of Bodies. By M.Gay-Lussac.*

We are indebted to Berthollet for the important law that
bodies haying analogous properties mutually displace each other
from their combinations, and that the principal causes which
limit their separation are volatility and insolubility. Berthollet
has not, perhaps, sufficiently developed the consequences of this
law; but it is easy to predict them in every particular case. 4

When two acids act on a base, and the whole remains in solu
tion, the base is divided between them, not according to thei‘
‘ponderable quantity, but to the number of their atoms; and i
appears that its affinity for each acid has generally an important
share in the phenomenon. In order to the division of the base,
it is enough that the acids, whatever may be their difference in
respect to volatility or solubility, remain in solution; for in that
case they must behave as if they possessed those two properties
in an equal degree,

Suppose, for instance, that we pour an excess of nitric acid on
chloride of sodium, the mixture will immediately contain hydro-
ehloric acid and chlorine, and if it be heated, ‘the chloride will
soon be converted into nitrate of soda. In making the converse
of this experiment ; that is, in treating nitrate of soda with an
excess of hydrochloric acid, we shall convert it into chloride of
sodium. These reciprocal decompositions are very easy, and
by converting two nitrates into chlorides, we can determine the
a ap in which they were mixed ; all that is necessary is to

now the weights of the two nitrates and the two chlorides, and
the atomic weight of each salt. All the chlorides are not decom-
posed by nitric acid with the same facility; chloride of silver,
which is completely insoluble in water and acids, is not at all
attacked by it; and chloride of lime is not so readily attacked
as the chloride of potassium or sodium. But we must also
observe, that we are now comparing compounds (chlorides and
nitrates) which are not at all analogous, and that we can only

* From the Annales de Chimie.

280 On the Reciprocal Decomposition of Bodies. [ApPRit,

apply the law of which we have spoken by supposing that the
chlorides remain indifferently in the solutions in the state of
chlorides, or that of hydrochlorates ; which is not always the
case. Sulphuric acid at common temperatures partially sepa-
rates the boracic and arsenic acids from their combinations;
but at a high temperature, it is, on the contrary, expelled by
‘them. i 404 j 9a

Nitric and hydrochloric acids decompose the fluorides, and in
its turn hydrofluoric acid decomposes the nitrates and chlorides.

Acetic acid decomposes several chlorides, and reciprocally
hydrochloric acid decomposes the acetates. Many other vege-~
table acids, and particularly lactic acid, present analogous
phenomena. |

Gases soluble in water, and which are separable from it by a
vacuum, are all expelled from that liquid by another gas passed
into it in excess.

One might quote a multitude of similar facts, but we shall
confine ourselves to the mention of the decomposition of hydro-
sulphates by carbonic acid, and that of carbonates by hydrosul-
phuric acid (sulphuretted hydrogen), respecting which M. Henry,
the younger, has lately been engaged in a very long investigation,
to demonstrate what a little reflection would have easily con-

-vineed him of, on the laws established by Berthollet.

Bicarbonate of potash, for instance, exposed in solution to the
contact of the air, loses a portion of its acid, and acquires the
property of precipitating sulphate of magnesia. If we pass a
current of hydrosulphuric gas into it, whose acid properties, as
is well known, are nearly the same as those of carbonic acid, a

ortion of carbonic acid will necessarily be liberated ; and as it
will be gradually expelled by the current of hydrosulphuric gas,
the’ bicarbonate remaining in solution will always be under the
same circumstances as to its decomposition, which, therefore, by
degrees, wil! become complete.

Tn like manner, if a current of carbonic acid be passed into a
solution of a hydrosulphate, the latter will be partially decom-
posed, and the hydrosulphuric acid set free, being carried off by
the current of carbonic acid, the decomposition of the hydrosul-
phate will continually go on till it is complete.

We must observe that these decompositions require a much
larger quantity of acid than would be necessary to saturate the
base ; for the eliminated acid cannot escape from the solution,
but by the action of a great excess of the acid which takes its
place, according to the theory of vapours.

Moreover if the carbonate and hydrosulphate be not in the
state of bisalts, neither the one nor the other will begin to let go
their acid till they have attained that state. M. Henry has
observed that the insoluble carbonates experience only a very

1826.) - Analyses of Books. 281
slight decomposition by the action of hydrosulphuric acid, as
may be easily imagined ; but, what is not so obvious, is, that
the carbonates, according to the same observer, are more diffi-
cultly decomposed by hydrosulphuric acid than the hydrosul-
phates by carbonic acid.

ArticLte XI.

ANALYSES oF Books.

1. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, for
1825. Part LI.

(Concluded from p. 223.)

In the next number of the Annals, we shall give a general
-account of the present state of science, on the subject of the
magnetism developed in various substances by rotation, embrac-
ing the principal contents of the four papers on that subject
contained in this part of the Philosophical Transactions.
Articles XIV. and XVI. therefore, being the papers on the mag-
‘netism of iron arising from its rotation, by Messrs. Barlow and
Christie, we shall at present pass over; and Art. XV. is the
paper by Sir H. Davy, which we have inserted in the present
number. ,

XVII. Some Account of the Transit Instrument made by Mr.
Dollond, and lately put up at the Cambridge Observatory. By
‘Robert Woodhouse, Esq. AM. FRS.

The dimensions of this instrument are nearly the same as those
of the Greenwich transit made by Mr. Troughton.

7 Ft. In.
ro Its focal length is. .....+++ SS we acaaneh iene
; Its aperture... ..-eeeee eee site 9 ecous BARE,

Thelength of the axis between thepiers 3 6

_ The weight of the instrument is 200 pounds. It was counter-
oised; but after repeated trials, Mr. Woodhouse has been
obliged to abandon the counterpoises for the present, for
‘instead of relieving the instrument, they rendered it unsteady.
-The whole lengths (two inches) of the pivots rest on the Ys.
Seven fixed wires are placed in the focus of the object glass,
and two other wires moveable by a micrometer screw ; the
interval of which wires is equal to the interval between any two
-of the fixed wires, and, equatorially, is 17°88. Two small gra-
- duated circles, with their spirit levels, are fixed near to the eye
piece, for the purpose of finding a star’s place in the meridian}
ach circle is furnished with two verniers; one for polar, the
other for zenith distances.

282 Analyses of Books. [Aprit,

A remarkable effect on the instrument was observed in level-
ling, which is thus described by Mr. Woodhouse ; )

“The tube of the telescope is braced to the axis by four
tubes. The stations of the two persons who level are opposite,
and contiguous to the south-west and north-east braces. Bein
in the constant habit of examining the meridian mark, in order
to know what degree of stability the instrument possesses, I
found, after levelling, that the south meridian mark was to the
east of the middle wire. In about 10 minutes the middle wire
returned to the meridian mark, and bisected it. I noted this
circumstance, a second, third, and fourth time, and then began
to inquire whether I had conjectured rightly in attributing it to
the expansion of the tubes or braces. For this end, I placed a
heated blanket across the south-west and north-east braces, and
found the meridian mark deviating to the east of the middle
wire: a contrary effect was produced by placing the blanket
across the south-east and north-west braces. In these trials the
object glass was towards the south: contrary effects took place
when it was turned to the north. )

«‘ As yet I am unable to say whether or not the sun’s rays
falling on the braces, during an observation of his transit, affect
the accuracy of the observation. I am inquiring into that point,
and have ordered a screen to be made to protect the braces from
the rays of the sun.”

XVIII. On the Fossil Elk of Ireland. By Thomas Weaver,
Esq. MRIA. &c.—(See Annals for June, 1825.)

XIX. Microscopical Observations on the Materials of the Brain,
and of the Ova of Animals, to show the Analogy that exists
between them. ;

XX. is Mr. Faraday’s paper on new Compounds of Car-
bon and Hydrogen, already reprinted in the Annals for January
and February of the present year; and the two following articles
on magnetism developed by rotation, by Messrs. Babbage,
Herschel, and Christie, we omit noticing in this place, for the
reasons already stated.

XXIII. On the Annual Variations of some of the principal
Fived Stars. By J. Pond, FRS. Ast. Roy. .

XXIV. Onthe Nature of the Function expressive of the Law of
human Mortality, and on a new Mode of determining the Value of
Life Contingencies. Ina letter to F, Baily, Esq. FRS. by Ben-

jamin Gompertz, Esq. FRS. E. W. B.
= )

2. Memoirs of the Astronomical Society of London, Vol. II.
Part I.

The First Part of the Second Volume of the Memoirs of the
-Astronomical Society of London has just been published; and
the following are its contents:— —

1826.) Memoirs of the Astronomical Society, Vol. IT, Part I. 283

On the Method of determining the Difference of Meridians, by
the Culmination of the Moon. By Francis Baily, Esq.

On the Utility and probable Accuracy of the Method of deter-
mining the Sun’s Parallax by Observations on the Planet Mars
near his Opposition. By Henry Atkinson, Esq.

On the Corrections requisite for the Triangles which occur in
Geodesic Operations. By Captain George Everest.

On the Rectification of the Equatorial Instrument. By Prof.
Littrow.

On the Variation in the Mean Motion of the Comet of Encke,
produced by the Resistance of an Ether. By M. Ottaviano
Fabrizio Mossotti.

Observations of the Solstice in June, 1823, made at Paramatia,
New South Wales. Communicated by Sir Thomas Brisbane.

Observations made in the Years 1823-4 at Paramatta, New
South Wales. Communicated by Sir Thomas Brisbane.

On a new Instrument, called the Differential Sextant, for mea-
suring small Differences of angular Distances. By Benjamin
Gompertz, Esq. the Inventor.

Observations on some singular Appearances attending the Occul-
tation of Jupiter and his Satellites on April 5, 1824. By Mr.
Ramage, Capt. Ross, and Mr. Comfield.

Observations on the Occultation of the Herschel Planet on
Aug. 6, 1824. By Capt. John Ross.

_* An Account of the Arrival and Erection of Fraunhofer’s large
Refracting Telescope at the Observatory of the Imperial University

at Dorpat. By Prof. Struve.

- Ona new Zenith Micrometer. By Charles Babbage, Esq.

The Results of Computations on Astronomical Observations
made at Paramatta, in New South Wales, under the Direction of
Sir Thomas Brisbane, and the Application thereof to investigate
the Exactness of Observations made in the Northern Hemisphere,
By the Rev. John Brinkley.

A short Account of a new Instrument for measuring Vertical
and Horizontal Angles. By George Dollond, Esq.

Observations made at Bushey Heath, from May 17, 1816, to
Dec. 7, 1824. By Col. Beaufoy.

On Astronomical and other Refractions; with a connected
Inquiry into the Law of Temperature in different Latitudes and
at different Altitudes. By Henry Atkinson, Esq.

A Report on the Properties and Powers of a new 3-feet Altitude
and Azimuth Circle, lately fixed at the Rectory-House of South
Kitworth in the County of Leicester :—constructed by Edward
Troughton, and divided by TI, Jones. Drawn up by the Rev,
William Pearson.

Observations made at Paramatta, in New South Wales, by
Major-General Sir Thomas Brisbane. To which are anneaed

984 Analyses of Books, ©. = °— TAprit,

Observations made by Mr. C. Rumker, at Stargard, New South
Wales, on the Comet which appeared in July, 1824, }

Observation of an Eclipse of the Moon, taken at Chouringhy,
near Calcutta, in the Year 1798. By the late Col. R. H. Cole-
brooke. .

Observations of the Eclipses of Jupiter’s Satellites, taken at
Chouringhy, in the Years 1797, 1798, 1799, 1800, 1801, and
1803. By thelate Col. R. H. Colebrooke. .

Observations of the Eclipses of Jupiter’s Satellites, taken at
Chouringhy, in the Years 1821, 1822, and 1823. By Captains
Hodgson and Herbert.

Observations of the Occultations of the Pleiades by the Moon, in
July and October, 1821. By the Rev. W. Pearson.

, hae of the Council to the Fifth Annual General Meeting. —

List of Presents, &c. &c.

With an Appendix, On the Construction and Use of some new
Tables for determining the apparent Places of nearly 3000 prin-
cipal Fixed Stars. Drawn up by Francis Baily, Esq.

a

3. Avium Species Nove quas in Itinere per Braziliam Annis 1817—
1820, jussu e¢ auspicits Maximilian: Josephi 1, Bavarie Regis
Suscepto, collegit et descripsit Dr. J. B. De Spix, Ordinis Regii
Corone Bavarice Civis Eques, §c.&c. Tabul@ 115 a M. Schmidt,
manacensi Depicte. Monachii, 1824. '

Ir is with great pleasure we observe the rapidity with which
the continental naturalists describe and even figure their disco-
veries ; for in less than two years after the return of the travellers
sent to collect the subjects of natural history in the forests of
South America, by the King of Bavaria, Dr. Spix has been
enabled, by the excellent state of the continental museums, to
write monographs on the reptiles and birds which were found
in his travels. In the part of the reptiles (the snakes) he was cer-
tainly assisted by Dr. Wagler, a most enthusiastic erpetologist,
who is engaged on a history of this order of animals.

The work is published in a size worthy of the royal auspices,
under which it is produced; for although it is not quite so large
asthe “large work on Egypt,” the large paper copies are not much
inferior. ‘The figures are lithographic, and do great credit to
the talent of the artist; for the general accuracy of their outline
and the minuteness of their detail, and indeed as works of art,
they merit some notice, as the part at present under consideration
presents in the three first plates two distinct kinds of lithography,
and a kind of mixture between the two. For the King of the
Vultures (Cathartes Papa) is a specimen of the usual chalk-like
style of lithography ; while the Rat-eating Eagle (Aquila Urubi-

1826.] ° Spix, Avium Braziliensitum Species Nove. 285:
tinga, t. 64), t.1, b. and the Kitelike eagle (Aquila Milvoides),

a kind of illustration of the engraving which we have never
before observed in natural history plates. The best idea of it
will be conveyed by considering it as an exact lithographic
representation of an excellent wood-cut; and every one who
has seen the works of Bewick must be ready to allow that this
kind of engraving is well adapted for representing this order of
animals. It appears to be done by covering the stone with ink
in the form of the bird, and then scraping off those parts which
are wanted to be light, and it leaves the cutline sharp and dis-
tinct, which is not the case with lithography in general. Mr.
Schmidt has only used this kind of lithography for the dark parts
of birds, although there appears no reason why it should not, like
wood-cuts, equally represent the more delicate tints; he has
often used it in conjunction with the other kind, as may
be observed in the Caracara (t. 1, a).. The Tezoura, t. 8, b.

The present volume only contains the Raptorial and part of the
Passerine birds. Dr. Spix divides the birds into natural groups
without taking any notice of the orders ; and under the families
he gives an abridged account of the habits of the birds which
are referable to them, which is the only notice that he takes of
their manners, except ina very few instances.

The first family he calls falcones, which appears to compre-
hend the Falcons and Vultures of Linneus. In this family, he
describes three new genera, as follows :

_1. Gymnops. “ Rostro subelongato gallinaceo, haud alto,
subcylindrico, circa basin, praecipue ante oculos nudo, apice
subadunco, oblique descendente; naribus rotundis; collo
exserto; tarsis breviusculis; alis cruciatis; cauda equali vix bre-
vioribus ; unguibus compressioribus, gracilioribus.”

This genus is very nearly allied to the Polybori of Vieillot,
which M. Spix also adopts: it contains four species, amongst
which are the Falco formosus of Latham, the type of Vieillot’s
genus Ibycter, and Falco Ater, the type of the genus Daptrius
of the latter.

/2..Mitvaco. MHabitu milvo, rostro Gymnopi simillimo,
breviore, acuto, minus adunco, et circa oculos multo minus
nudo; alis longioribus, caudam breviorem, equantibus; naribus
rotundis ; gula non nuda.

- This genus is also very nearly allied to Polyborus, and is,

erhaps, the Daptrius of Vieillot; but in fact Cuvier appears to
fs right when he refers them all to Caracara: it only contains
one species, M. ochrocephalus, whichis in the British Museum.

3. Brpens. ‘Tinnunculoides, exiguus; pedibus gracilioribus,
rostro brevi subcompresso plus minusve, bidentato; alis crucia-
tis, cauda brevioribus. ;

This genus is here first separated from the falcons, to which it
is considerably allied, but the name was long ago employed by

O86. ; ' Analyses of Books. — “APRIL,

Linneus for a genus of plants; and Mr. Vigors, in his excellent’
paper on the Falconidz, in the Zoological Journal, has lately,
not knowing that Dr. Spix had separated it, formed it into a
genus under the name of Harpagus, which must, therefore, be’
retained. He describes six species, two of them figured by Tem-
minck, and he considers what the latter called the young of
F. bidentatus (t.228), as a distinct species, under the name of A/bz-
venter, which must, therefore, be H.albiventer; he adds to this
genus the Falcons, F. Sparverius (Buff. t.465), F. Dominicen-
sis (Buff. t. 444), and FP. aurantius of Latham; but these birds,
having reticulated legs, do not belong to Mr. Vigors’ genus, but:
are true falcons. Dr. Spix has described the male and female
of the first of these birds; and he says, the second is not the
female of the first, as is generally supposed.

Unfortunately the genera are not very accurately defined, nor
is the character of them or of the species expressed according.
to the usual rules of natural history, and the synonima are
limited.

In the second family of Striges, there is only one genus, con-
taining six species, five of which appear to be hitherto unde-~
scribed.

The third family or Psittaci, are divided into genera which
appear to be analogous to the subgenera of Kuhl. They are,

1, ArARA, the Ara of authors, containing eight species.

2. ARaTINGA characterized thus; Macrurus, minor modax ;
orbitis nudiusculis ; genis angustis, vix vel raro nudis; rostroden-
tato, graciliore; cauda longiuscula cuneata ; rectricibus interme-'
diis longioribus. This genus contains several of the Psittacara of
Mr. Vigors, but is not confined within the same limits as that
genus ; it contains 18 species, amongst which are two that Mr.
Vigors has lately described as species of Psittacara. Dr. Spix
figures, t. 11, a species of parrot, which he has dedicated to the’
King of Bavaria under the new generic name of Anodorhynchus,
but he has not given the characters of it. The bird is peculiar,
as the name partly implies, for the upper mandible is very
long and much arched, and destitute of any notch in its lower
edge. In this family there are also described four love-parrots,
under the generic name of Psittaculus, and 17 species of true
parrots.

- The family of Cuculi, which Dr. Spix describes in the fol-
lowing manner, may be given as a specimen of the usual way in
which these groups are characterized.

Insectivori, taciturni, non scansoril, sed sedentarii. Strigum
modo breviterque volantes ; digitis frequenter gracillimis, 2 an-
ticis, 2 posticis ; rostro arcuato ; colla, alis, et tarsis abbreviatis. °

In the genus Trogon, there are described nine species, some of
which are exceedingly beautiful, though not so brilliant as those
of the southern part of the Old World. Dr. Spix also describes.

1826.] Spi, Avium Braziliensium Species Nove. 287
five species of Bucco ; the whole of them properly belong to the
genus. Capito of Temminck, as that author has restricted the
former genus to those species which are only found in the Old
World. A bird very nearly allied to the latter genus is described
under the name of Cyphos Macrodactylus, and this family, a
hew genus, is also established under the often-used name of

~ Macrorus. Cuculinus, tarsis elevatis; cauda elongata,
dependente, gradata, inzequali; alis breviusculis, rostro trigono
peracuto edentato; naribus lateralibus oblongis, collo non abbre-
viato; digitis fissis.

Two species are described as belonging to this genus, the
name of which must be altered. Of the genus Galbula, three
species are described, one under the name of G. tridactilis; but
we are not certain that it is the same bird as that which Vieillot
has described under that name ; but it evidently is the same as
the G. Ceycoides of Mr. Such.

In the Pici, consisting only of the genus Picus of Linneus,
16 species are described, amongst which is one under the
name of P. campestris, t. 46, which is peculiar for being grega-
rious, and not climbing trees, but living in the fields, and picking
the insects from the mule’s dung.
| The next family of Pice, a new species of Coracina, is
described under the name of C. ornata, anew Prionites, P. Mar-
tii, t. 60; but the most interesting novelties of this family are
the addition of three new Cassici and six Icteri, amongst which
the figures of these birds, those of plate 64, illustrate excellently
the superiority of the style of engraving, to which I have before
referred, for ornithological subjects.

In the Turdi, or thrushes, M. Spix describes five species of
the typical genus, three species of Myiothera, and a new genus,
with the following characters, under the name of

Puittypor. Insectivorus, ad ripam aquarum solitaria
ambulans ; cauda longiuscula, mequali Dendrocolaptum modo
sed molli; crista capitis brevi, plicatili; rostro subulato, laterali-
ter subcompresso, ad apicem subcylindrico, subdeclivi, sub-
adunco, emarginato; maxilla inferiore breviore quam superiore;
naribus subbasalibus, rotundis, minutis; rictu oris usque infra
oculos elongato ; tarsis breviusculis.

Three species are described and figured, all of which appear
to be very nearly allied to the genus Anabates of Temminck,
which the author refers to his family Dendrocolaptes, and
describes three species. Two species of the genus Anthus are
described, one belonging to Mr. Vigors’ new genus Corydalla,
the other a true Anthus. ;

This family ends with a new genus under the name of

Ficutvus. Ad marginem aquarum ac sylvarum solitaria et
quasi domestica ambulans, nidum fornicis mstar e limo supra,
arbores non altas inter ramos construens, cauda equali brevi-

288 - » Analyses of Books. = —>s (APRIL,

uscula; rostro longiusculo subulato, ad apicem subarcuato non
emarginato, rictu oris usque infra oculos fere prolongato, sub-
arcuato, naribus subbasalibus ovatis, vix tectis.

Only one species of this genus is described and figured.

In the family Certhiada, several new genera are described.

1. CampytoruyNcaus. Turdinus; réstro longiusculo
arcuato, crassiusculo, ad basin latiusculo, versus apicem cylin-
drico ; naribus ovatis subbasalibus, non obtectis; digito postico,
reliquis crassiore ; alis breviusculis ; rictu oris usque ad oculos
elongato. al ,

Two species are referred to this genus, C. scolopaceus and
C. striolatus.

The genus Trochilus is restricted, and two new genera are
separated from it.

1, Grypuus. Magnus; rostrotrigono, rectiusculo versus apicem
lateraliter serrato, compresso, ad apicem adunco, maxilla infe-
riore .ad apicem ascendente; cauda latiuscula, equali non
elongata. Only one species is described and figured. G. rufi-
collis, which is T. Nevius, Pl. Col. t. 120, f. 3. wy

2. Couisri. Rostro crassiusculo, versus apicem intumido,
subhiante, maxilla inferiore ad apicem, subascendente. eats

The name of this genus appears to be taken from the French
name of the humming birds in general ; it contains six species,
but the genus still requires division.

In the last family of Dendrocolaptes, there are two new genera,
under the names of,

1. SpHanura. Rostro longiore subulato, vix arcuato, sub-
cylindrico, ad apicem obtuso ; naribus rotundioribus, digitis ad
basin connatis; cauda molliore detrita ; digitis anticis lateralibus
inzqualibus. This genus, according to the plates, contains two
species; but in the description, one is referred to the genus
Anabates ; it is distinct from A. striolatus of Temminck. Of the
latter genus there are three species, and of Synadlaxis one species
described. To this family is added a new genus separated from
Parus under the name of .

2. Parulus. Paro similis; alis brevissimis; cauda longiore
gradata; rostro tenui brevi ad apicem subarcuato ; maxilla inferiore
compressa, apice ascendente; naribus longitudinalibus membrano
obtectis. One species is described, and the P. biarmicus, of
Linneus, appears to be referrible to the same genus. Of the
genus Dendrocolaptes, twelve species are described, several of
which are new.

We wait with impatience for the remaining parts of this inte-
resting work, which cannot fail to be very beneficial to the
progress of science. It is only to be regretted that more is not
said respecting the habits of these birds, for if the travellers who
have observed them in their native places neglect to do so, from
whom can we expect it; that there are not more numerous

1826.] Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. 289

references to other authors, for surely many of these birds must
have been described by Azara, and named by Vieillot; and that
the generic characters are not more distinctly defined. How-
ever, with these faults, which may be corrected as the work
continues, we strongly recommend it to the public libraries of
this kingdom. JE. G.

ArTIcLE XII.
Proceedings of Philosophical Societies.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

Feb. 23 (continued).—Edmund Davy, Esq. lately elected,
being unable to attend for admission, requested that his name
might be inserted in the printed lists of the Society, which was
granted accordingly. The following is an abstract of Mr. Dal-
ton’s paper on the Constitution of the Atmosphere, read at this
meeting.

_ After some preliminary remarks, the author observes, that
whatever may be thought of Newton’s hypothesis as to elastic
fluids, as far as the mechanical effects of such fluids are objects
of inquiry, we may safely adopt it; namely, that each fluid is
constituted of particles repelling one another by forces inversely as
their central distances, at least within ordinary limits of conden-
sation and rarefaction.

After adverting to the fact that mixtures of various elastic
fluids, such as is the atmosphere, composed of atoms of different
volumes and elasticities, do notwithstanding observe the same
laws of condensation and rarefaction as simple elastic fluids, and
to the difficulties which this fact throws in the way of the New-
tonian hypothesis, Mr. D. puts a case which he thinks has not
before been considered, and which may assist us materially in
forming a correct notion of such mixed atmospheres.

Two equal cylindrical pipes are conceived to be placed perpen-
dicular to the horizon, in contact, and of indefinite length, close
at the bottom, and open at the top. These are supposed to be
filled with two gases of different kinds, the one with carbonic
acid, and the other with hydrogen, in order to show the contrast
more strikingly. The columns of gases are assumed each to be
of the weight of 30 inches of mercury, and consequently will
represent vertical columns of atmospheres of the respective

ases equal in weight to like columns of the earth’s atmosphere.

.D. calculates from known principles that the column of car-
bonic acid gas will terminate at 30 or 40 miles of elevation, or at
least will become of such tenuity as that it may be disregarded.
In like manner that of hydrogen will be found to become insig-
nificant above 1200 miles of altitude.. The author then supposes

New Series, vou. x1. U

290 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [APRIt,

that horizontal air-tight partitions are made across both tubes at
any given intervals of distance, and that openings are made, so
that the gases in the corresponding horizontal ceils may commu-
nicate with each other, in which case each gas, as is well known,
would divide itself equally between the two cells. For 30 or 40°
miles both gases would be found in each cell; but for the rest
of the column, namely, for 1000 miles or upwards, there would
be nothing but hydrogen in both cells.

In the next place, Mr, D. conceives the horizontal partitions
to be withdrawn, and considers what change would ensue.
There would have been many cells about the summit of the car-
bonic acid atmosphere which, when opened for the purpose of
communication, would part with half their contents to the colla-
teral cells, but half the contents would not be able to fill the.
whole space of the cell, by reason that the gas was at its mini-
mum density before. Hence the gas would be confined to the
lower half of the cells, and there would be no carbonic acid in
the upper parts. Of course when the partitions were removed,
the carbonic acid in each cell would descend till it came in con-
tact with the like gas of the inferior cell. Thus there would be
a slight descent of the upper regions of carbonicacid gas. The
same also would happen to the hydrogen gas about the summit
of its atmosphere, and a still more considerable descent would
take place. Mr. D. seems to think there would be no material
change in the mixed atmospheres afterwards. Thus the two
mixed atmospheres would exhibit equal volumes of each gas in’
the lowest cells, or at the surface of the earth, though in the
whole compound atmosphere the two gases are of equal weights.
' All this would take place according to the author’s argu-
ments were the mixed atmospheres quiescent ; but if the atmo-
spheres are like the earth’s atmosphere, in a constant state of
commotion, greater or less, still there will be a constant tendency
towards that state of equilibrium which is above described. In
the conclusion Mr. D. states, that he has a series of observations
which support the opinion that the atmosphere at different
seasons and elevations exhibits different proportions of its
elements in association, which he intends to bring forward on
some future occasion.

March 2.—The Hon. and Rev. Richard Carlton, and Lieut.-
Gen. Sir Rufan Shaw Donkin, were admitted Fellows of the
Society.

_ Two papers, by Sir E. Home, Bart. VPRS. were read, on the
Coagulation of Blood in an Aneurismal Sac, and also of Blood
taken from the Arm, by heated Iron. In the first paper, the
author describes the symptoms of the disease in the patient on
whom the experiment was tried, during and subsequently to its

erformance, which was effected by means of a heated acupunc-
torial needle ; together with the state and characters of the blood

nr » Royal Society. 291

so coagulated. To the second paper, in which the effects on
the blood of heated bodies at various temperatures are described,
is annexed an account by Mr. Brande, of the chemical changes
they produce in if.

March 9.—A paper was read, on the Analysis of Oil of Wine,
with Remarks on the Salts called Sulphovinates; by Mr. H.
Hennell, of Apothecaries’ Hall : communicated by W.T. Brande,
Esq. Sec. RS. The following is an abstract of this paper.

* Mr. Hennell at first supposing that the elements of oil of wine
were the samie as those of sulphuric ether, endeavoured accord-
ingly to determine their relative proportions in the former sub-
stance, by passing its vapour over ignited peroxide of copper.
In this process, portions of sulphurous acid gas and sulphate of
copper were invariably obtained ; in attempting to ascertain the
origin of which, the oil of wine was heated insolution of muriate of
barytes, but no precipitate or even cloudiness was produced in
it, though litmus paper at the same time indicated the presence
of free acid. On concentrating the solution, however, a precipi-
tate of sulphate of barytes was gradually formed ; showing that
either the sulphuric acid was in some state of combination inter-
fering with its action upon tests, or that its elements existed in
the oil of wine in some unusual state of arrangement. From 200
grains of pure oil of wine, treated with solution of potash, evapo-
rated to dryness, and ignited, and then treated successively with
nitric acid and muriate of barytes, were obtained 2183 of sul-
phate of barytes, indicating 74 of sulphuric acid.
~ On resuming the analysis with peroxide of copper, with due
care, and the additional precautions suggested by the nature of
the substance as just pointed out, it appeared that 100 grains of
oil of wine contain 53°70 of carbon, and 8°30 of hydrogen: the
deficiency = 38 parts being referable to the sulphuric acid, as shown
by the experiments above-mentioned. These proportions indi-
eate the hydrocarbon combined with the sulphuric acid to con-
tain an atom of each constituent; but they do not show the
quantity of hydrocarbon combined with the sulphuric acid, for
oil of wine always holds in solution an excess of this hydrocar-
bon, from which it is inpossible to free it. In order to deter-
mine, therefore, the quantity of hydrocarbon in combination with
the sulphuric acid, some oil of wine was heated with water, and
precipitated carbonate of barytes was then added to it, which
was dissolved, with effervescence. When, however, the solution
was evaporated, it soon became acid, and sulphate of barytes
precipitated. On treating a further quantity of oil of wine in the
same manner, but precipitating the barytic solution by carbonate
of potash, and evaporating at a temperature of 150° Fahr. it
ielded tabular crystals, not unlike chlorate of potash, very solu-
le in water and alcohol, and burning with a flame resembling
that of ether. These crystals were found to contain, in 100 parts,
u2

292 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [APRYL,

Potash ...... LU SARA EOE Rees
Sulphuric acid........ sie ; 8°84
Carbo!) oe28 ante peels ee eee is 13°98
FIV drove h oe ee ccc en es'es as mate pene
Wate EOE At Oe vrewabe heed a tee

101-00

It thus appears, that in this salt four proportionals of carbon
united with four of hydrogen, are combined with one of sulphuric
acid, forming oil of wine.

Mr. Hennel ascertained that this salt was identical with that
called sulphovinate of potash; and whilst preparing some of the
sulphovinates, for the purpose of comparing them with the salts
obtained from oil of wine in this manner, he found that a great
reduction of the saturating power of sulphuric acid was produced
by its mixture with alcohol; 440 grs. of acid mixed with an equal
weight of alcohol, requiring for theirsaturation only 398 grs. of par-
tially dried carbonate of soda, whilst an equal weight of pure acid
required 555 grains of the same carbonate. This fact shows that
sulphuric acid, by mixture with alcohol, is immediately converted
into sulphovinic acid ; and, in conjunction with the facts detailed
in the former part of the paper, it also evinces that the loss of
saturating power cannot be owing, as MM. Vogel and Gay-
Lussac have supposed, to the formation of hyposulphurie acid.

By heating oil of wine either in solution of potash, or in water,

much of the excess of hydrocarbon which it contains is liberated
‘in the form of an oil, resembling in appearance some of the bal-
‘sams. This oil, as well as the crystals which form spontaneously
in oil of wine, yielded by analysis carbon and hydrogen, in pro-
portions nearly approximating to those of olefiant gas; but in
the analyses, which were several times repeated, a slight loss
was. always experienced, the cause of which Mr. Hennell was
unable to ascertain.
. A paper on the Mathematical Principles of Suspension
Bridges, by Davies Gilbert, Esq. MP. VPRS. was also read; and
the reading of a paper by Mr. Herschel, on a new Method of as-
certaining the Parallax of the Fixed Stars, was commenced.

March 16.—N. A. Vigors, Esq. and Pearson, Esq.
were admitted Fellows, and the name of Hawkins, Esq.
was ordered to be inserted in the printed lists of the Society.
‘The reading of Mr. Herschel’s paper, of which we shall probably
give an account in our next, was resumed and concluded.

A paper was also read, On the Expression of the Parts of
Machinery by Signs ; by C. Babbage, Esq. FRS.

Jn contriving his calculating engine,* Mr, Babbage found

* See Annals, N.S, vol. iv.

1826.] ~ o 9 {Royal Institution. — 53 993

great difficulty from not having any regular method, by which
he could find, at an instant’s notice, the precise time at which
any given piece began to move, and also the state of motion or
rest, at the same instant, of all the other parts. He therefore
devised a method of expressing all the motions of any machine,
however complicated, by signs. This it is almost impossible to
describe without figures ; but the following statement of the infor-
mation which may be derived, almost at a glance of the eye, from
the paper on which the “ mechanical notation ” of any machine is
expressed, will serve to show the important purposes to which
the method may be applied.

1. The name of each part is written at length, and there are
references from the name to all the drawings.

2. The number of teeth on each wheel, pinion, rack, or sector,
is seen.

3. Any given part, a wheel for example, being named, it will
be seen what immediately moves it, what drives the mover, and
so on up to the origin of motion: and not only will the whole
succession of movements be visible, but the manner in which
they act; as, for instance, whether by being permanently con-
nected, or in the manner of a pinion driving a wheel, or by stiff
friction, or at intervals only.

_ 4. The angular velocity of each part will be seen.
_ 5. The comparative angular velocity, or the mean velocity.

6. All those parts which require adjustment will appear ; and
the order in which those adjustments should be made is pointed
out.

7. At any part of the cycle of the engine’s motion, it will be
seen at a glance what parts are moving, what are at rest; and
-it will appear in what direction the motions of the moving parts
take place, and whether their velocity is uniform or variable. It
will also be seen whether any given bolt or click is locked or
not. -

8. Any part being named, the entire succession of its motions
and intervals of rest is at once presented to the eye; and if the
contemporary movements at any particular time be required,
they will be visible adjacent to it.

Mr. Babbage gives, as specimens of his method, the mecha-
nical notation of the common eight-day clock, and of the :
hydraulic ram.

In consequence of the approaching fast and festival, the

Society then adjourned over two Thursdays, to meet again on
April 6.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT

| BRITAIN, AT THE FRIDAY-EVENING MEETINGS.

Feb, 3.—The results of a chemical examination of caoutchoue
and the properties of the pure substance, were stated from the

294 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [Aprit)

lecture table by Mr. Faraday. Numerous specimens of the
substance in all states, and as applied to manufactures in the
construction of vessels and clothing, were exhibited, having been
furnished by Mr. Hancock. i \ 3497
_ £eb.10.—Mr. Faraday gave an account of the results which Mr.
Brunel-has obtained, in his endeavours to apply the liquids
resulting from condensed gases to the construction of powerful
mechanical engines. It appeared that after having successfully
encountered many difficulties, Mr. Brunel had succeeded per-
fectly in confinmg and manipulating with the substances, and
that he found the data furnished by his experimeats highly
favourable. He is at present engaged in constructing a working
machine. iva
. A plant of Ficus Elastica stood in the library. °

eb. 17.—Mr. Griffiths’s experiment on the existence of free
alkali in glass was exhibited in the library.—Mr. Varley illus-
trated and explained the construction and use of his single
microscope.—Mr. Brant produced an extraordinarily large: bar
of palladium, weighing above 61b, which came from Brazil.—A
series of geological and mineralogical specimens from South
.America was also exhibited.

feb. 24.—Mr. Cornelius Varley explained the construction and
uses of his graphic telescope, an instrument intended to perform
the office of the camera obscura of Dr. Wollaston, but admitting
of the application at the same time of magnifying powers.

March 3.—The chemico-mechanical principles of the art of
lithography were explained by Mr. Faraday, and illustrated by
many of the actual operations on stone. The stones and draw-
ings had been furnished by Mr. Hullmandel, whose superinten-
dent assisted also in the operations. Numerous very fine speci-
mens cf the art lay upon the tables.

March 10.—Mr. Brande gave an experimental illustration of
the state and quantity of alcchol in wines, and the manner in
which its properties are diminished, and partly masked, by com-
bination with the other principles present. Unadulterated port
wines were selected for the purpose, and the proportion of alco-
hol shown to be very low as compared with common port wines.
The various precautions required in the accurate analysis of
wines were pointed out, and applied in the operation.

:

LINNEAN SOCIETY.

Jan. 17.—A paper was read, On some Cornish Species of the
Genus Labrus; by Mr. Jonathan Couch, FLS. Among other
species noticed in this communication were Labrus Julis; Tinca
(Common Wrasse); cornubiensis (Goldsinny) ; microstoma (Cork-
wring) ; trimaculatus ; and Comber: also Perca inermis.

1826.J _ Astronomical Society. 295

eer t, *

‘ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY.

Ad

. Feb. 10.—The Sixth Annual General Meeting of the Society,
was this day held at the Society’s rooms in Lincoln’s Inn Fields,
for the purpose of receiving the Report of the Council upon the
state of the Society’s affairs, electing Officers for the ensuing

rear, &c.

The President, F. Baily, Esq. in the Chair.
From the Report, which was read by Dr. Gregory, we give
the following extracts :

“In meeting the Astronomical Society of London at its Sixth
Anniversary, the Council have great pleasure in being enabled
still to use the language of cordial congratulation ; for not only
does the number of the Members and Associates of the Society
continue to increase, and its affairs to prosper; but also the
theory and practice of Astronomy (the extension of which was
the sole object of the Society) have both been obviously pro-
moted by the zeal and talent of many of its members and
friends.”

_ The Report proceeds to state, that “in 1822, the members
and associates amounted to 188; in 1823, to 207; in 1824, to
210; in 1825, to 224; in February, 1826, to 237 ;—a number, in
which are included several of the most eminent promoters of
astronomy, not only in Britain but in Europe. !
_ © Amongst the few members of whom the Society has been
deprived by death, the Council think it proper to call your
attention to the loss of Mr. Cary. As an artist of considerable
eminence and high reputation, he was well known in the scien-
tific world. Amongst the many excellent instruments which he
contrived and perfected, he was the maker of the 24-feet Alti-
tude and Azimuth Instrument at Konigsberg, with which
M. Bessel made his first observations at that celebrated Obser-
vatory.

_ “Among the duties which it has devolved upon your Coun-
cil to discharge, one of the most interesting has been the selec-
tion of papers (read at the ordinary meetings) for publication in
the volumes of the Memoirs of the Society. The Second Part
of the First Volume, which was nearly ready for delivery at the
Anniversary Meeting of 1825, was shortly afterwards laid before
the public, and has been well received by astronomers.—The
First Part of the Second Volume is now nearly ready for publi-
-eation ; and the Council trust that it will experience an equally
favourable reception. Besides several valuable papers tending
to improve the theory of astronomy and of astronomical instru-
ments, and others describing instruments which are entirely
new; the seyeral parts here alluded to contain tables which tend
very much. to facilitate the labours of the practical astronomer.
. Thus the second part of Vol. I. terminates with subsidiary tables

296 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [Apnity

for facilitating the computation of annual tables of the apparent
places of 46 principal fixed stars, computed by order of the
Council; to which is prefixed a statement by the Foreign
Secretary of the formule employed, and the elements adopted
in their construction. These tables, with their introduction,
occupy 76 pages. ; phen?
“ The tables of precession, aberration, and nutation, serving
to determine the apparent places of about 3000 principal fixed
stars, to which allusion was made inthe last Report of the Coun-
cil, have been completed to 180° of AR, and written out for the
press. The remainder are in a state of considerable forward-
ness. These tables, together with an ample introductory paper
on their construction and use, by the President of this Society,
will constitute an appendix to the second volume of the Memoirs.
“ Amongst the numerous communications which have been
made from the associates of this Society, the Council may
specify a very interesting and elaborate paper, forwarded to the
Foreign Secretary by M. Plana, on some important inquiries in
physical astronomy, which will be found in the second part of
the second volume. The President also has received a letter
from M, Bessel, requesting to know whether the Astronomical
Society would patronize and promote a plan, which he had sug-
gested, for making detached charts of the heavens. The Presi-
dent was requested by the Council to assure M. Bessel that the
Astronomical Society would doubtless promote so laudable and
useful a measure, as much as lay in their power. That active
and indefatigable astronomer, pursuant to his general plan, now
regularly observes all the smaller stars in zones, agreeably to the
method suggested and practised by the late Rev. F. Wollaston.
He has already completed the zones within 15° on each side of
the equator; and in that space has observed upwards of 30,000
stars. The observations are annually published by.M. Bessel,
with the other observations made at the Royal Observatory at
Konigsberg. When they are reduced (as there is great reason
to hope they will be), they will constitute a most valuable acces-
sion to the stores of astronomy.
“ Others of the associates have especially distinguished them
selves, and have forwarded to this Society some very interesting
communications, as the successive parts and volumes of the
Memoirs will evince. In alluding to these distinguished
characters, your Council cannot avoid noticing the indefatigable
labours of M. Schumacher, Professor of Astronomy at Copen-
hagen. His Astronomische Nachrichten, or Astronomical News-
paper, has considerably facilitated the intercourse between
astronomers in every part of the world; serving to record the
observations of various interesting phenomena, as well as to
draw the attention of observers to other phenomena about to
appear. He has also published several compendious collections

1826}! ©. ©. Astronomical Society, ~~ 297

of tables of great’ practical utility. Among these, your Council
cannot omit a particular reference to the very important tables,
which constitute the second part of his Sammlung von Hiilfsta-

edn, and which have been prepared for the purpose of reducing
the 50,000 stars contained in Lalande’s Histoire Céleste; serving
indeed to effect the reduction of any one cf those stars in the
short space of two or three minutes.

. “Thus whilst M. Schumacher has laid all astronomers under
considerable obligations by the publication of these tables, he
has conferred a peculiar mark of his esteem upon the body now
assembled, by dedicating this volume to the Astronomical
Society ; a distinction which they who know the talent and zeal
of this our eminent associate, will be able to appreciate in an
adequate manner. e
» “One of our associates, M. Struve, has devoted himself with
great perseverance and success to the observation, and classifi-
cation, of double stars ; an important department of astronomical
research, which was originally opened and pursued with his
wonted assiduity and accuracy by our late revered President, Sir
William Herschel.

“This subject has been still more extensively pursued, and
with considerable ardour and zeal, by two of our members,
Messrs. Herschel and South; whose labours on this very inte-
resting branch of the science are contained in a paper read
before the Royal Society, and which in itself forms the third

art of the Philosophical Transactions for the Year 1824.

hoever has read that paper with attention must be struck with
the vast labour and perseverance, the great accuracy and uniform-
ity of result, with which those delicate observations have been
made. Such animmense mass of interesting facts cannot fail to
open new views to the contemplative philosopher, and extend
our knowledge of the true system of the universe: and Mr.
Herschel himself, in a communication about to be laid before
the Royal Society, has made a happy application thereof, as
explanatory of some of the phenomena connected with parallax.
The indefatigable ardour of Mr. South in the cause of astronomy,
induced him to follow up his researches on the same subject
whilst he was in France ; and he has recently made a commu-
nication to the Royal Society, of some new observations, of
equal, if not superior, importance ; and which will appear in a
subsequent volume of the Philosophical Transactions.

“ For these laborious and valuable researches and observa-
tions relative to double stars, the Council have awarded to each
of those distinguished members and associate, Mr. Herschel,
Mr. South, and M.Struve, the Gold Medal of the Society, which
will be presented to them at a General Meeting expressly called
for that purpose, as soon as the medals can be prepared.

» © Sie Thomas Brisbane, Governor of New South Wales, has

298) Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [APRIL,

devoted himself indefatigably to the practice of astronomy, at;
Paramatta in that colony, having taken out with him some,
excellent instruments for that purpose. He and his assistants,
have already made several thousand observations, the records
of which have been sent over to this country: and it is hoped ©
that they will be published, either in their original shape, or.
after they have been reduced to some appropriate epoch. Dr.,
Brinkley, of Dublin, one of the Vice-Presidents of this Society,
has instituted a series of computations on Sir Thomas Brisbane’s,
Observations, with a view to the comparison of the results thus.
furnished, with the results deduced from observations made in.
the northern hemisphere. This particular inquiry has served to
confirm the accuracy of the constant of refraction, formerly.
exhibited by that illustrious astronomer in his well-known for-;
mula for that species of reduction. Dr. Brinkley’s paper on this
subject is printed, and will appear in Part I. Vol. II. of the
Memoirs of this Society.
“ Another of the members of the Astronomical Society, the;
Rev. Fearon Fallows, Astronomer at the Cape of Good Hope,
has also made a great number of observations of the southern’
stars ; and the Royal Society has published his Approximate
Catalogue of 273 of the principal stars observed by La Caille.
“The continuance of observations, such as these, at two
Observatories in the southern hemisphere, cannot but be pro»
ductive of considerable benefit to the science of astronomy. In.
order, however, that they may be rendered subservient, in the
highest degree, to the extension of this branch of knowledge, it
is especially desirable that some efficient plan of co-operation
should be arranged between the astronomers at some of the
northern observatories, and those who are employed at the two
above-mentioned stations, south of the equator. Those who are.
conversant with the history of astronomy will recollect that when
La Caille went to the Cape of Good Hope, in 175], he addressed
a circular letter to the principal astronomers in Europe, enfore=.
ing the advantages of co-operation ; and Lalande was in conse-
quence sent to Berlin, to act in concert with him. Circum-
stances are now still more favourable for the production of
advantageous results, provided a judicious plan of mutual co-
operation be agreed upon. For while there is the Observatory
established by Sir T. Brisbane in New South Wales, and that
occupied by Mr. Fallows at the Cape; there are also in the
northern hemisphere, M. Bessel at Konigsberg, M. Struve at
Dorpat, and M. Argelander at Abo (the meridians of the four
latter-mentioned places differing from each other but a very few
degrees),—the respective astronomers, men of considerable
scleace, activity and perseverance, and possessing instruments
far superior to those which were in existence in the time of.

La Cale. The advantages of this kind of pre-arranged co-

1826:7 | © | .% Astronomical Society. . 299

operation, to -which your Council here advert, are so well
understood in the present advanced state of astronomy, that a
mere hint will (it is hoped) suffice, to produce the desired
concert.”
'. The Report then adverts to the contributions and exertions of
other scientific bodies, alluding to the erection of an Observatory
‘at the University of Cambridge, and the still more recent announces
ment of a prize of 75/. at Edinburgh, to be awarded to the authors
6f the two best essays on Comets; also to the reduction of Mr.
Groombridge’s observations, and the arrangement and publication
of those of Tobias Mayer, which have been determined upon by
the British Board of Longitude. As another subject of congra+
tulation, the Council mention the interest which appears
recently to have been excited in the United States of America
in the subject of astronomy.
_ “With respect to the Prize Questions proposed at the last
General Meeting of the Society, the Council report that they
have received only one answer to the first question, which,
being just delivered in, is now under investigation. The period
allotted for the determination of the second question will not
expire till the next anniversary, and that allotted for the third
question not till the anniversary in 1828: prior to which time
the Council trust that the subjects proposed will have excited
the attention of astronomers, and induced them to forward to
the Society the result of their inquiries and investigations.”

The Council then state their opinion, that it would tend mate-
tially to the advancement of astronomy, if an accurate descrip-
tion of every principal Observatory could be obtained, accom-
panied with a ground plan and elevation of the building;
together with a description of the instruments employed, and
drawings of such as are remarkable, either for their novelty or
— interest. “It is well known,” they observe, “ that

ere are several instruments in constant use on the Continent,
and much approved by astronomers, which have not yet been
seen in this country; and some in this country, which are not
sufficiently known abroad; or even amongst ourselves. The
Council would encourage every attempt to promote this species
of information, by publishing in their Memoirs the accounts
which they may from time to time receive on this subject, and
the drawings with which they might be accompanied.”

The Report concludes in the following manner :
~ © Your Council think it unnecessary to extend this Report to
agreater length. It must be evident that many things which
(as far as regard the objects and labours of this Society) were
six years ago only matters of hope and anticipation, have now
become subjects of mutual congratulation. But it can only be
‘bya cordial and zealous co-operation of all its members, and by
a continued course of perseverance, that. the Society can ever

300 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [ApRiv,

expect ‘fully to attain the principal objects for which it:was
established ; and which, as stated in their original address, are
for the purpose of ‘ collecting, reducing, and publishing useful
observations and tables :—for setting on foot a minute and sys-
tematic examination of the heavens :—for encouraging a general
spirit of inquiry in practical astronomy :—for establishing com-
munications with foreign observers :—for circulating notices of
all remarkable phenomena about to happen :—for enabling the
public to compare the merits of different artists, eminent in thé
construction of astronomical instruments :—for proposing Prizes
for the improvement of particular departments, and bestowing
medals or rewards on successful research in all :—and finally,
for acting, as far as possible, in concert with every Institution
both in England and abroad, whose objects have any thing in
common with their own ; but avoiding all interference with the
objects and interests of established scientific bodies.’ Keeping
these objects in view, as constant landmarks, the Council trust
that the Society will insure the approbation and applause of
every friend of science ; and that it will not only prove a source
of interest and information to the members at large, but likewise
tend to advance the progress of astronomy in every habitable
and civilized part of the globe.”
After reading the Report and the Treasurer’s accounts, the
members proceeded to ballot for the officers for the ensuing
year, when the following were declared to have been duly
elected :— .
President.—Francis Baily, Esq. FRS. LS.and GS. F
Vice- Presidents.—Rev. John Brinkley, DD. FRS. Pres. RIA.
and And. Prof. Ast. Univ. of Dublin; Capt. F. Beaufort, RN,
FRS.; Henry Thomas Colebrooke, Esq. FRSL. and E, FLS,.
and GS.; and Davies Gilbert, Esq. MP. VPRS. FLS. and GS.
Treasurer.—Rev. William Pearson, LL.D. FRS. £9
Secretaries.—Olinthus G. Gregory, LL.D. Prof. Math. Royal
Mil. Acad. Woolwich; and Lieutenant William S. Stratford,
RN. ;
foreign Secretary.—J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. MA. Sec. RS,
Lond. and FRSE, ,
Counctl—Colonel Mark Beaufoy, FRS. and LS.; Benjamin
Gompertz, Esq. FRS.; Stephen Groombridge, Esq. FRS.;
James Horsburgh, Esq. FRS.; Daniel Moore, Esq, FRS. SA.
LS. and GS,; Joha Pond, Esq. FRS. Ast. Royal; Edward
Riddle, Esq.; Richard Sheepshanks, Esq. MA.; W.H. Fox
Talbott, Esq. BA.; and Edward Troughton, Esq. FRSL. and E.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. re

Feb. 17.—At the Anniversary Meeting of the Society held this
day, the following gentlemen were elected Officers and Council
for the year ensuing ;— © , a is donne. inccbay a

1826:]' | Geological Society. 301

») President.—John Bostock, MD. FRS.) | :
» Vice-Presidents—Sir Alexander Crichton, MD. FRS. and
LS. Hon. Memb. Imp. Acad. St. Petersburgh; Rev. W. D.
Conybeare, FRS.; William nae: Fitton, MD. FRS.; and
Charles Stokes, Esq. FRA. and LS.

Secretaries.—W. J. Broderip, Esq. ; R. J. Murchison, Esq. ;
and Thomas Webster, Esq.
~ Foreign Secretary —Henry Heuland, Esq.
Treasurer.—John Taylor, Esq. w
~ Council.—Arthur Aikin, Esq. FLS.; Henry Thomas De la
Beche, Esq. FRS. and LS.; J. E. Bicheno, Esq. Sec. LS.;
Henry Thomas Colebrooke, Esq. FRSL. and E. FL. and Asiat.
Soc.; Sir Charles Henry Colvil; George Bellas Greenough,
Esq. FR. and LS.; Sir Charles Lemon, Bart. FRS.; Armand
Levi, Esq. ; Charles Lyell, Esq. FR. and LS.; William Hasle-
dine Pepys, Esq. FRS. LS. and HS.; George Poulett Scrope,
ng J. F. Vandercom, Esq.; and Henry Warburton, Esq.
. March 3.—The reading of Sir A. Crichton’s paper, on the
Taunus Mountains in Nassau, was concluded.
» The great mountain groups forming the Taunus. are portions
of that vast chain which crosses the Rhine to Valenciennes ;
and in the duchy of Nassau they are composed of transition and
trap rocks : they here separate into two ranges, nearly at night
angles: to each other. The southern chain hes on the north of

ayence and Frankfort, and its highest point is the Feldberg,
2600 feet above the level of the Mayne. The northern cham
includes the Westervald, celebrated for its brown-coal. The
strata of the southern face of the former chain consist of talc
and quartz-slate dipping north-west ; whilst those of the north-
ern face are of grauwacke and clay-slate, inclining upward south-
east. The summit is a decomposing quartz-rock, containing
talc and iron, the sides and base of the mountain being formed
of tale and slate. The baths of Schlangenbad are surrounded
by slaty quartz: quartz-conglomerates occur near the foot of the
southern chain ; where also a thick bed of sandstone, resembling
our new red sandstone, rests upon the calcareous deposits of
the valley of the Mayne, quarries of which are seen at Wisbaden.

The valley of the Mayne, which is interposed between the
northern and southern chains, is chiefly occupied by low hills
of coarse shelly limestone, analogous to the upper freshwater
formation of Paris, and quarries of it occur near Wisbaden and
Hockheim: Paludine and Modioli abound in it. At Hockheim
the beds are much dislocated, and at Wisbaden fossil bones are
found, the tecth accompanying which refer them to animals
allied to the Lophiodon tapiroides, and to the Sumatran Tapir.
These calcareous deposits are only two hundred feet above the
Jevel of the Mayne, and they are perforated in many places by

302 Scientific Notices—Chemistry. [APRit;

basalt, upon which they rest. The basalt finally disappears
south-east of Darmstadt, and is succeeded by primitive rocks.
There ‘are strong salt-springs at Soden, and various mineral
waters near Frankfort and Hadnigstein.

The Falkenstein mountain, though composed of talc-slate,
protrudes through the high table land in the form of basalt. “To
the north of this the older rocks disappear, and the district is
occupied by grauwacke. The grauwacke is divided into quartzy
grauwacke and grauwacke slate ; the latter is very distinct from
micaceous slate, and contains casts of Spirzferi, of the Pleuro-
branchi of Cuvier, &c. ; the former offers encrinites, and unknown
coralloids. The valley of the Lahn, between Coblentz and
Diety, affords the best sections of grauwacke, and higher up that
river the transition limestone appears at Baldowinstein. .The
schalstein (or problematic stone of Von Buch) is seen in all its
varieties in the valley of the Aar, and with it are associated por-
phyry, carbonate of lime in veins, iron, and copper. At Diety
and Baldowinstein, porphyry seems to rise through the lime-
stone. Crystalline dolomite, resting upon transition limestone,
is the most recent formation observable in the mountainous
ranges of Nassau. No diluvial detritus is seen in any part of
the duchy, but quartz pebbles in sand occur in the elevated
plain between Selters and Nassau: these are supposed to have
been torn from the grauwacke by local causes, and to have been
deposited prior to the elevation of that formation. The author,
reflecting upon the marine fossils on the summits of some of
these mountains, infers, that the horizontal strata were formed
at the bottom of a sea, and were subsequently elevated ; and he
is inclined to attribute the origin of the grauwacke to the attri-
tion of the primitive rocks during the period of their elevation.

E. W. 2B.

ArtTicLE XIII.
SCIENTIFIC NOTICES.

CHEMISTRY.
1. Vegetable Principle in Saponaria Officinalis.

We are informed that Dr. Osborne of this city has detecteda
principle in the Saponaria officinalis, or Soap-wort, which in
some of its characters more nearly resembles picrotoxia than any
other proximate vegetable principle hitherto described, but is
sufficiently distinguished from it in others. It was obtained
from the decoction. It has an extremely bitter taste, is of a
whitish colour, and crystallizes in prisms, both radiated and
plumose. On the application of a low heat it fuses ; and when
the heat is increased, swells and blackens.. It possesses neither

1826.]’ Scientifie Notices-—Chemistry. 303

acid nor alkaline properties. Treated with sulphuric acid, and
heated, it soon chars, and is entirely decomposed. It is soluble
in ether and alcohol, and dissolves in less than twice its weight
of cold water. It is insoluble in spirit of turpentine. After the
plant had flowered, it unexpectedly ceased to afford any of this
substance; so that it was necessary to postpone all further
experiments on it until next season, when we hope to be enabled
to lay a more detailed account of it before our readers.

In the course of those experiments, it appeared that the
abstergent quality of the plant, which has been long observed,
and from which its name 1s derived, was solely owing toa viscid
gummy matter, which forms an emulsion when rubbed in cons
tact with greasy particles ; and which also produces the great
quantity of froth which is formed on agitating the decoction —~
(Dublin Philosophical Journal.)

2. Phosphorescence of certain Fluids,

- The following fluids have been found by Dr. Brewster to be
phosphorescent when poured into acup of heated iron.
_ 1, Albumen (white of an egg) diluted in water.
2. Isinglass, solution of.
. 3. The two preceding solutions mixed.
» 4. The saliva.
5. Soap and water.
6. Solution of rhubarb.
7. Solution of common salt.
8. Solution of nitre.
9. Tallow. .The phosphorescence of tallow may be distinetly
observed when a candle is put out in a dark room.
10. Alcohol. . (fi
. 11. Ether burns with a blue flame.
12. Oil of dill seed.
13. Oil of olives.
14. Solution of alum, very faint.
In making these experiments, Dr. Brewster found that alcohol
would not inflame when poured upon a red-hot iron, while ether
burned with great readiness.—(Edin. Journ. of Science.)

3. On Rinmann’s Green.

' This colour is an intimate mixture of the protoxide of cobalt
and the oxide of zinc, which assumes a very lively green tint,
after it has been heated to redness. In order to form this green
suddenly, as if by the eruption of a volcano, mix together two
parts of nitrate of zinc, and one part of the subacetate of cobalt,
and expose the mixture to a spirit of wine lamp, in a glass globe
with a short neck. This mixture soon becomes liquid, and
appears at first ofa rose-red colour, then purple, then blue. In
an instant it flames, detonates, becomes dry, and assumes a

304 Scieritifié Notices—Mineralogy). [APRin,

green colour. The product is scattered upon the vessel in the
form of small rolled leaves of tea.—(Bull. des Scien. Nat.)

4. Formula for the Preparation of the Sulphate of Rhubarb.
By Mr. George W. Carpenter.

Boil for half an hour 6 lb. of coarsely bruised Chinese rhubarb
in six gallons of water, acidulated with two and a half fluid
ounces of sulphuric acid ; strain the decoction, and submit the
residue to a second ebullition in a similar quantity of acidulated
water; strain as before, and submit it again to a third ebullition,
unite the three decoctions, and add by small portions recently
powdered lime, constantly stirring it to facilitate its action on
the acid decoction. When the decoction has become slightly
alkaline, it deposits a red flocculent precipitate, which is to be
separated by passing it through a linen cloth and dried, after
which reduce it to powder, and digest in three gallons of alcohol
at 36° in a water-bath for several hours, which dissolves the
thubarbine ; separate this solution from the calcareous precipi-
tate, distil off three-fourths of the alcohol; there then remains a
strong solution of rhubarb, to which add as much sulphuric acid
as will exactly neutralize it; evaporate this slowly to dryness, the
residuum will be of a brownish-red colour, intermingled . with
brilliant specks possessing a pungent styptic taste, soluble in
water, and its odour that of the native rhubarb.

This preparation is a concentrated form of the active principle
of that valuable cathartic, separated from the ligneous and
mucous portions, and bears the same relation to the crude sub-
stance that quinine does to Peruvian bark. It is well worthy the
attention Of physicians, as the quality of rhubarb is so various
that the dose is very uncertain. This preparation will be of
uniform strength, and may. be administered safely to new-born
infants.—(Silliman’s Journal.)

MINERALOGY.

5. Optical Structure of Edingtonite.

Mr. Haidinger, the discoverer of this new mineral, which he
has described in our last number, and which has been analyzed
by Dr. Edward Turner, was so good as to put into my hands
three very minute crystals of it for the purpose of examination.
It has one axis of double refraction coincident with the axis of
the octohedron, which is its primitive form. The character of
its action upon light is negative, like that of calcareous spar.
This result affords another proof, if any were wanting, of the
infallibility of the optical law of primitive forms, D, B.—(EKdin.
Jour. of Science.)

1826.) » Scientific Notices—Zoology. 305

6. New Analysis of Dioptase.

The former analyses of Vauquelin and Lowitz, differ widely
‘from the following results now obtained by Vauquelin.

Vauquelin. Vauquelin.

Lowitz. Ist analysis. 2d analysis.

Bihec io et Ome aw le. QBS7 VO aa TST
Carbonic acid. —....... . 18°67
Pimten cere ues e ee 24-18

Ox. of copper. 55 ...... 28°58 ...... 45°455

Maven. ci ae a Se rs toot

100 100-00 100-000

Ie Vauquelin’s second analysis was made up by decigrammes.
-—(Edin. Jour. of Science.)

Zoo.oey.
7. Fossil Deer of Ireland.*

Since the publication of our last number, a very fine and per-
fect skeleton of this animal has been placed in the Museum of
the Royal Dublin Society. For this very desirable addition to
zoology, we are indebted to the liberality and love of science of
the Rev. Archdeacon Maunsell, and the skill and anatomical
‘knowledge of Mr. Hart, Member of the College of Surgeons in
this city, by whom a memoir on the subject has been published,
‘from which we make the following extracts. Archdeacon
Maunsell, in his communication to the Royal Dublin Society,
gives the following account of the situation in which these bones
‘were found :—

“ The valley in which the remains were found contains about
twenty plantation acres, and the soil consists of a stratum of
peat about a foot thick, and immediately under this a stratum
of shell marl, varying from 11 to 2 feet in thickness ; in this
many of the shells retain their original colour and figure, and
are not marine; under the marl there is a bed of light blue clay,
through this one of my workmen drove an iron rod, in several
places, twelve feet deep, without meeting opposition. Most of
the bones and heads, eight in number, were found in the marl ;
many of them, however, appeared to rest on the clay, and to be
‘merely covered by the marl. The remains were disposed in such
a manner as to prevent the possibility of ascertaining the exact
component parts of each skeleton ; in some places portions were
found removed many yards from others, and in no instance were
two bones found lying close to each other. Their position also
was singular; in one place two heads were found, with the
antlers entwined in each other, and immediately under them a
large blade bone; in another, a very large head was discovered,

: * See Annals for June, 1825.
New. Series, vou. x1. x

306 Scientific Notices—Zoology. [Aprit,

and although a most diligent search was made, no part of the
skeleton found; within some hundred yards, in another, the
jaw-bones were found, and not the head. The conclusion which,
I conceive, may fairly be deduced from such a position of the
various parts of the animals is, that there must have been some
powerful agent employed in dispersing them after their death ;
and asI consider it impossible that their own gravity could have
been sufficient to sink them through the various strata, I conceive
these must have originated subsequently to the dispersion of the
bones. Lalso think, that if they had been exposed for any time
to atmospheric influence, they never could have been preserved
in their present extraordinary state of perfection.

“ The hills immediately adjoining this valley are composed of
limestone, with a covering of rich mould of various degrees of
thickness. One of them, the base of which is about thirty acres,
rises directly from the edge of the valley, with sides very preci-
pitous, and in one place perfectly perpendicular, of naked lime-
stone. In every part of this hill the superficies comprises as
much stone as mould; on the side nearly opposite, the hill is
equally high, but the sides not so steep, and the covering of
mouid thicker; on the other sides the ground only rises in some
degree (twenty or thirty feet perhaps) and consists of a thin
mould, and immediately under a very hard limestone gravel.
Indeed, except where limestone forms the substratum, this is
‘the character of all the soil in the vicinity except the Corkases,
which are evidently alluvial. I am fully aware, that assuming
the destruction of the animals to have been occasioned by a
flood, they would naturally have retreated from the water to the
hills, and that, as they probably met their fate there, their
remains should have been discovered on the summit of the hills,
and not in the valley, particularly as one of them is perfectly
flat on the top, which contains six or seven acres. I apprehend
that the remains of many of them were deposited on the tops of
the hills, but as they have mow only a slight covering of mould,
‘not sufficient to cover a small dog, they were formerly perfect
-bare; and as they were thus devoid of the means of protecting
the remains from the atmosphere, whatever was left there soon be-
came decomposed, and resolved into portions of the mould, which
is now to be found on the hills. This remark I conceive also to
be applicable to the soil with the substratum of limestone gravel,
‘which affords quite as little material for preserving the bones as
the hills do. It is material that I should observe that of eight
heads, which we found, none were without antlers; the variety
in character also was such as to induce me to imagine, that
possibly the females were not devoid of these appendages ;
unfortunately, however, from the difficulty of raising them, being
saturated with water, and as soft as wet brown paper, only three
were at all. perfect. Your’s most truly,

WiLLIAM W, MAUNSELL.”

i

1826.) Sctentifie Notices—Zoology. 307

‘Mr. Hart’s description is as follows :—“This magnificent
skeleton is perfect in every single bone of the framework which
contributes to form a part of its general outline: the spine, the
chest, the pelvis, and the extremities, are all complete in this
respect ; and when surmounted by the head and beautifully
expanded antlers, which extend out to a distance of nearly six
feet on either side, forms a splendid display of the reliques of
the former grandeur of the animal kingdom, and carries back the
imagination to a period when whole herds of this noble animal
wandered at large over the face of the country. To proceed
with a description of the several parts of this specimen in detail,
I shall commence with the horns, which give the animal its
chief characteristic feature. The horns—That the description
of these may be the more intelligible, I will first explain the
terms which I mean to apply to their several parts. Each horn
consists of the socket or root, the burr or coionary circle, the

‘ beam or shaft, the palm and the antlers. The socket or root is
the part of the horn which grows out of the frontal bone, and
which is never shed; it is smooth, of a brown colour, an inch
and half in length, and eleven inches three quarters in circumfe-
rence ; ip the animal’s life time it was covered by the skin. The
coronary or bead-like circle, or burr, is a ring of small, hard,
whitish prominences, resembling a string of pearls, which encir-
cles the junction of the socket with the part of the horn which
falls annually from the heads of all deer. The beam or shaft
extends outwards with a curvature, the concavity of which looks
downwards and backwards. This part is nearly. cylindrical at
its root, and its length equals about one-fourth of that of the
whole horn; its outer end is spread out and flattened on its
upper surface, and is continuous with the palm, which expands
outwards in a fan-like form, the outer extremity of which mea-
sures two feet ten inches across, being its broadest part. Where
the beam joins the palm, the horn undergoes a kind of twist, the
effect of which on the palm is, to place its edges above and
below, and its surfaces anterior and posterior ; the anterior sur-

face is convex, and looks outwards ; the posterior is concave,
and its surface looks towards that of the opposite palm. Such
is the position of the horns, when the head is so placed that the

‘zygomatic arch is parallel to the horizon, as it would be during
‘progression, or whilst the animal stands in an easy posture. The
antlers are the long pointed processes which project from the
horns, two of which grow from the beam anteriorly; the first
comes off immediately from the root, and is directed downwards,
overhanging the orbit; this is called the brow antler, which in
this specimen is divided into two points at its extremity.* The

* T have seen this antler divided into three points in two specimens, one at the Earl
of Besborough’s, county Kilkenny, (which measured eight feet four inches between the
tips,) the other in the hall of the Museum of Trinity College: it is single in the greater
number of specimens, as in those which arg describes,

x

308 Scientific Notices—Zoology. [Apain;

other antler, which comes off from the beam, we may call the
sur-antler : in this specimen it consists of a broad plate or palm,
concave on its upper surface, horizontal in its direction, and
forked into two points anteriorly, an appearance which I have
not observed in any other specimen of upwards of forty which I
have seen, nor do [I find it marked in any of the plates of those
bones extant. There is one antler given off posteriorly from the
junction of the beam with the palm; it runs directly backwards
parallel to the corresponding one of the opposite horn. The
inferior edge of the palm beyond this runs outwards and back-
wards: it is obtuse and thick, and its length is two feet six
inches. From the anterior and external borders of each palm
there come off six long pointed antlers. None of these are
designated by any particular name. The number of the antlers
of both sides taken together is twenty-two. The surface of the
horns is of a lightish colour, resembling that of the marl in
which they were found; they are rough, and marked with
several arborescent grooves where the ramifications of the arte-
ries by which they had been nourished during their growing
state were lodged. The horns, with the head attached, weighed
eighty-seven pounds avoirdupois. The distance between their
extreme tips in aright line is nine feet two inches. Head.—The
forehead is marked by a zaised ridge extended between the roots
of the horns ; anterior to this, between the orbits and the root
of the nose, the skull is flat ; there is a depression on each side
in front of the root of the horn and over the orbit capable of
lodging the last joint of the thumb, at the bottom of which is the
superciliary hole, large enough to give passage to an artery
aceactiohene to the size of the horns. Inferior to the orbit we

ave the lachrymatory fossa, and the opening left by the defi-
ciency of bone common to all deer, and remarkable for being
smaller in this than in any other species. Below the orbits the
skull grows ‘suddenly narrower, and the upper parts of the nasal
bones become contracted by a depression on either side, at the
lower part of which is the ¢nfra-orbitar hole. The opening of
the nares is oval, being five inches long by three broad, the
greatest breadth being in the centre. From the roots of the
horns to the occipital spine measures three inches and an half;
the occiput descends at a right angle with this, being three
inches deep to the foramen magnum: the greatest breadth of the
occiput is eight inches. The temporal fosse approach to within
two inches ofeach other behind the horns. Teeth.—They do not
differ from those of animals of the ruminating class. The inci-
sors were not found, having dropped out; there is no mark of
canine teetn; the molares are not much worn down, and are
twenty-four in number. The skeleton measures, from the end
of the nose to the tip of the tail, ten feet ten inches. The spine
consists of twenty-six vertebrae, viz. seven cervical, thirteen
dorsal, and six lumbar. The size of the cervical vertebrae greatly

—

SO, pee

1826.J © Scientific. Notices—Zvology. 309

exceeds that of the other classes, and the spines of the dorsal
rise to a foot in height. The necessity of these bones being so
marked is obvious, considering the strong cervical ligament, and
powerful muscles, required for supporting and moving a head
which, at a moderate calculation, must have sustained a weight
of three quarters of a hundred of solid bony matter. The extre-
mities are in proportion to the different parts of the trunk, and
present a conformation favourable tc a combination of great
strength with fleetness. It is not the least remarkable circum-
stance connected with these bones, that they are in such a high
state of preservation as to present all the lines and impressions
of the parts which had been attached to them in the recent
state. Indeed if we examine them as compared with the bones
of an animal from which all the softer parts have been separated
by maceration, the only perceptible differences in their physical
properties are, that they are a little heavier, a degree harder,
that their surface is brown, and that they all, with the exception
of the horns, present a polished appearance, which is owing to
the periosteum having been preserved, and still remaining to
cover them as was discovered when they were chemically
examined. The existence of fat or adipocire in the shaft of one
of the bones mentioned by Archdeacon Maunsell, and which I
saw in his possession, is a thing for which it is extremely difficult.
to account, as it occurred but in one solitary instance, and it
did not appear that this bone was at all differently circumstanced
from the rest. Those which I had an opportunity of examining,
by boring holes in them, were hollow, and contained for the
most part only a small quantity of black animal earth. I
requested my friend Mr. W. Stokes to make an analysis of a
small fragment of arib, which he found to contain the following
constituents :

Animal matter......... eR ep td 41)
Phosphates, with some fluates. ...... 43°45
ORPTENISHEE: TOU TUTE, octane. s ae clones s, om aan 9-14
RURIIES |p cis 5.5 BS ee aa uae eh can Ae Ae
gS Ie ieee ep pe ee eae ee ae
Water and loss . ......0e. Se ane et ae

100-00

With a view to ascertain the state of the animal matter, [ had
a portion of bone submitted to chemical examination by my
friend Dr. Apjohn, at the laboratory of the New Medico-Chirur-
gical School, Park-street, of the result of which he gave me the
subjoined statement:
_ “T regret that time did not permit my making a more parti-
cular examination of the Moose-Deer bone, which was left by
you at my laboratory. Knowing that you were in possession of

310 Scientific Notices—Zoology: [Apnrit,

a tolerably correct analysis of its earthy materials, my attention
was difected to its animal constituents, which, as the following
experiments establish, were found in a state of perfect preserva~
tion. The bone was subjected for two days to the action of
dilute muriatic acid. When examined at the end of this period,
it had become as flexible as a recent bone submitted to the
action of the same solyent. The periosteum was in some parts
puffed out by carbonic acid gas, disengaged from the bone, and
appeared to be in a state of soundness. To a portion of the
solution of the bone in the muriatic acid some infusion of galls
was added, which caused a copious precipitate of a dun colour.
This proved to be tannate of gelatine, mixed with a small por-
tion of the tannate and gallate ofiron. The cartilage and gela-
tine therefore, so far from being destroyed, had not been percep-
tibly altered by time.”

Mr. Hart, in speaking of the specific character of the animal,
makes the following observations: It is now clearly ascertained
that the only large species of deer inhabiting the northern parts
of America are the wapiti or Canadian stag (Cervus Canadensis),
the rein-deer (C. Tarandus), and the moose or elk (C. Alces),
The peculiar branching of the brow antlers of the rein-deer, and
the rounded horns of the wapiti,* are characters sufficient to
prevent us confounding either of these animals with the fossil
species. The palmate form of the horns of the elk gave greater
probability to the opinion of its specific identity with the fossil
animal. <A little attention, however, to a few circumstances,
will show a most marked difference between them. First, as to
size, the difference is very remarkable, it not being uncommon
to find the fossil horns ten feet between the extreme tips, while
the largest elk’s horns never measure four feet. This measure-
ment in a pair in the Museum of the Royal Dublin Society is
three feet seven inches ; the largest pair seen by Pennant in the
house of the Hudson’s Bay Company measured | thirty-four
inches.}| The horn of the elk has two palms, a lesser one which
grows forward from the front of the beam where the principal
palm begins to expand. This is called brow antler by Cuvier,
but it corresponds in situation rather to the sur-antler, there
being, properly speaking, no brow antler attached to the root of
the beam. The elk has no posterior antler similar to that of
the fossil animal, nor does its beam take a similar arched direc-
tion, but runs more directly outwards.

Cuvier remarks, that the palm of the fossil horn increases in
breadth as it extends outwardly, while that of the elk is broadest
next the beam.

* (A fine pair of this species, male and female, were exhibited by Mr. Bullock in this
city a few summers ago. They did not answer to any description of Pennant or of Dr.
Shaw, but had the characters of C. Canadensis as given by Cuvier. +

+ Pennant’s Zoology, vol, i.

:
|

_

1826.] Scientific Notices—Zoology. 311

The palm of the elk’s horn is directed more backwards, while
the fossil one extends more in the lateral direction. The antlers
of the elk are shorter and more numerous than those of the
fossil.

As the horns of the fossil animal exceed in size those of the.
elk, so on the contrary does the skull of the latter exceed in size
that of the former; the largest heads of the fossil species not
exceeding one foot nine inches in length, while the head of the
elk is frequently two feet. The fossil head is broader in propor-
tion; its length being to its breadth as two to one; in the elk
they are as three to one, according to Parkinson.* The breadth
of the skull between the roots of the horns is but four inches in
the fossil skulls ; in that of the elk in the Society’s Museum it
is 64 inches.

Cuvier thinks it probable that the females of the fossil species
had horns,+ an opinion to which I am very much disposed to
subscribe, from having observed that these parts present differ-
ences in size and strength, which appear not to be dependent on
differences of age; for instance, the teeth of the specimen in
Trinity College are much more worn down, and the sutures of
the skull are more effaced than in the specimen described in this
paper ; yet the horns of the latter are much more concave, and
more expanded than those of the former; and on comparing a
single horn of each of these specimens together, that belonging
to the Society exceeds the other by nearly a sixth in the length,
and little less than a third in the breadth; it is not therefore
unlikely that the animal whose horns were larger and more
eurved wasa male. Something similar to this is observed in the
rein-deer, both sexes of which have horns, but with this differ-
ence, that they are smaller and less branched in the female.
Hence we find that this animal possessed characters of its own
sufficient to prove it of a:species as distinct from the moose or
elk as this latter species is from the rein-deer or any other;
therefore, it is improper to retain the name of elk or moose deer
any longer; perhaps it might be better called the Cervus mega-
ceros, a name merely expressive of the great size of its horns.

That this animal sheds its head furniture periodically is proved
by the occasional occurrence of detached horns having the
smooth convex surface below the burr, similar to what is observed
on the cast horns of all deer. Specimens of this are to be seen
in the Museum of Trinity College, and I possess one myself, of
which { have had a drawing made. As every other species of
deer shed their horns annually, there is no reason for supposing
that that process occurred at longer intervals in this. ’

The skeleton measures as follows:

“4 Organic Remains, vol. iii. *F Ossemen’s Fossils, tom. iy. -

BP Svientific Notices—Zoology. [ApriL,;

; Ft. In.
Height'to the tip of the horns is ssvdewsilasccm tae, 10 4

Do. tothe point of the spines of the dorsal vertebre.... 6 6
feprth ‘of the Spies... 4.0 alain ed «bien oie ble sale LOR OOD
Distance between the extreme tips of the horns measured

bythe skull nisi evsts isso u sh ashe mrebeondhty Ronhlp
Distance between the tips measured ina strait line across 9 2
Lengthiof each: horn. shied. si. eid disci Gui bowling ceniieem

(Dublin Philosophical Journal.)

8. Pecten niveus, anew Species.

It having been suggested, in hasty terms, in the number of
the Annals of Philosophy for November last, that the Pecten
niveus, described in vol. xiii. p. 166, of the Philosophical Journal,
is perhaps a mere variety of P. as/andicus, I judge it expedient
to institute a comparison between the two species after the man-
ner in which I have compared P. niveus with P. varius, the only
species to which it approaches in its characters. P. islandicus
has from 70 to 100 or more* ribs ; P. nzveus has invariably 46 ; +
in the former, the nbs are very irregularly grouped from 2 to 6
being crowded together, with smaller ones intervening, . but
without any regularity ; in the /atter, they are beautifully regu-
lar; in P. islandicus they are marked with very numerous, deli-
cate, erect lamine, or scales, without any appearance of echina-
tions ; in P.ntveus they are compact and smooth, with scattered
echinations toward the margin of the shells; P.islandicus is a
tolerably thick shell, of a pale-reddish colour, with concentric
circles of a deeper tint; P. mzveus is a very thin shell, of a pure
white colour; P. zs/andicus has a margin singularly irregular in
its teeth, recalling the idea of that scrt of leaf which is termed
Solium crispatum; P., niveus has its marginal teeth as regular as
those of a Cockle. If after this P. aslandicus and P. niveus
should be considered identical, then assuredly P. maximus and
P.jacobeus are so also; and scarcely any two species of a genus
can be named, that must not, on the same grounds, be mere
varieties. I now subjoin the distinctive characters of the three
species. P. islandicus, test& suborbiculari rubente, fasciis con-
centricis saturatioribus, radiis circiter 100 varie aggregatis
rotundatis lamellulis densissimis scabriusculis. P. niveus, testa
orbiculari, fragili candida, radiis 46 subcompressis rotundatis
sparsim breviter tenuiterque echinatis. P. varius, testa orbicu-
lato-oblong4, colore varia, radiis 32, obsoleté squamosis, sub-
compressis, rotundato-planatis, sparsim crass¢ echinatis. W.M‘G,

—(Kdin. Phil. Jour.)

* In a specimen in the Museum of the University of Edinburgh, the number is 104;
in a very perfect specimen belonging to W. Nicol, Esq. Edinburgh, the number is 106,
+ That is to say in 32 specimens.

1826.] Scientific Notices—Miscellaneous. 313

MiscELLANEOUS.

9. Description of a new Instrument to ascertain the Specific
Gravity of Powders.

Prof. Leslie lately exhibited a very interesting experiment in
his Class Room, with a new instrument to ascertain the specific
gravity of powders, and all kinds of solid substances which will
not bear immersion in water.

The instrument consists of a glass tube ae,
about three feet long, and open at both ends. a
The wide part a 6 is about four-tenths of an
inch in diameter, the part 6 e about two- bi—
tenths. ‘The two parts communicate at b by
an extremely fine slit, which suffers air to
pass, but retains sand or powder. The mouth c
’ ata is ground smooth, and can be shut so as
to be air tight by a small glass plate (shown d
a little above it in the figure). The substance Hs
whose specific gravity we wish to find—
suppose it to be sand—is put into the wide
part of the tube, or the cylindrical cavityab, ~ e _
which may either be filled to the top or not.

The tube being then held in a vertical posi-

tion, the narrow part is immersed in an open tube or vessel 2,
filled with mercury, till the mercury rises both inside and outside
to the gorge at 6. The lid is then fitted on air-tight at a. In
this state it is evident that there is no air in the tube except
what is mixed with the sand in the cavity a 6. Now suppose
the barometer at the time to stand at 30 inches, and that the
tube is lifted perpendicularly upwards till the mercury stands in
the inside of 6 e at a point c, 15 inches* above its surface in the
open vessel x. It is evident then that the air in the inside of
the tube is subjected to a pressure of exactly half an atmo-
sphere, and of course it dilates and fills precisely twice the space
it originally occupied. It follows too, that since the air is dilated
to twice its bulk, the cavity a 6 contains just half of what it did
at first, and the cavity bc now containing the other half, the
quantity of air in each of these parts of the tube is equal. In
other words, the quantity of air in bc is exactly equa! to what is
mixed with the sand in a6, and occupies precisely the same
space which the whole occupied before its dilatation. Let us
now suppose the sand to be taken out, and the same experiment
repeated, but with this difference, that the cavity a 6 is filled

* When the barometric column is 29 inches, the height is 143, and so on. Thisis
regulated by a scale.

314 Scientific Notices—Miscellaneous. [Aprit,

with air only. It is obvious that as the quantity of air is greater
than it was when part of the cavity was filled with sand, it will,
when dilated to double the bulk under a pressure of 15 inches,
occupy a larger space than in the other experiment, and the
mercury will only rise, let us suppose to d. But let it be remem-
bered that the attenuated air in the narrow tube always occu-
pies exactly the space which the whole occupied under the ordi-
nary atmospheric pressure. Now this space is in the one case
the cavity 6c, and in the other b d. Hence it clearly follows,
that the cavity cd, which is the difference between these,
as equal to the bulk of the solid matter in the sand. Now by mark-
ing the number of grains of water held by the narrow tube b e
on a graduated scale attached to it, we can find at once what is
the weight of a quantity of water equal in bulk to the solid
matter in the sand, and by comparing this with the weight of
the sand in air, we have its true specific gravity.

Such is the Professor’s process, which appears to us remark~
ably ingenious, as well as beautifully simple, and we shall see
from some of the results which it has already afforded, that it
must furnish important aid to the natural philosopher in his
researches. On one point a few words of explanation may be
required. The Professor is aware that some solid bodies, such
as charcoal, hold much condensed air in their pores, and since
the probability is, that when reduced to powder they still retain
this property in some degree, he obviates the chances of error
arising from this source, by comparing the dilatation which takes
place under different degrees of pressure—under 10 inches, for
instance, and 20, or under 7+ and 15.

Charcoal is known to be precisely the same in its chemical
nature with the diamond ; but its porosity renders it so light,
that the specific gravity assigned to it in books is generally
under 05, that is, less than half the weight of water, or one-
seventh part of the weight of diamond. Prof. Leslie has, hows
ever, taken its specific gravity in the state of powder by the
instrument we have described, and he finds that its weight
actually exceeds that of diamond—that it is one-half greater
than that of whinstone—and of course that the substance is
more than seven times heavier than it has been hitherto supposed.

The specific gravity of mahogany is generally put down as
1:06. Prof. Leslie finds that of mahogany saw-dust to be 1°68,
or two-thirds more. He found that of wheat flour to be 1-56, of
pounded sugar 1:85, of common salt 2°15. The last of these
agrees very accurately with the common estimate. Writing
paper rolled hard up with the hand was found to have a specific
gravity of 1-78, and to occupy less than one-third of the space
it apparently filled. One of the most remarkable results found,
is that relating to voleanic ashes, asubstance which seems very

1826.] Scientific Notices—Miscellaneous. 315

light on a superficial examination, but which was found to have.
a specific gravity of 4-4, It is, therefore, as heavy as some of
our ores of copper and iron. We ought to mention that these
numbers were given by the Professor rather as approximations
than as strictly accurate results, the instrument first constructed
not being quite so perfect as he expects by and bye to render it,
and his experiments not having been very numerous.—(Scots-
man.)
10. Preservation of Anatomical Preparations.

Braconnot has applied the persulphate of iron, in consequence
of its astringent and antiseptic properties, to the preservation of
anatomical preparations. It combines easily with all the humours
and soft tissues of animals, and preserves them from putrefaction
and insects. A brain, portions of liver, spleen, and lungs,
impregnated with this salt, have a long time resisted destruction.
Dr. Macartney, of Dublin, covers his preparation jars with a thin
plate of Indian rubber varnished.* This is superior to lead or
bladder, and retains the vapour of alcohol perfectly.—(Dublin
Philosophical Journal.)

11. Local Atiractions.

. The Connaissance des Tems, 1827, contains an account of
Geodetical operations in Italy by the French geographical engi-
neers, remarkable for the discordance it exhibits between results
deduced from these operations and from astronomical observa-
tions. Of the exactness of the survey no doubt can be enter-
tained from the recital given, and the astronomical results are
founded on the observations of several most able astronomers.
The discordances, which in one case amounts to nearly 27” and
in another to 17”, are attributed to local deviations of the plumb
line, caused by irregular attraction. The matter near the surface
at Milan appears to attract the plumb line considerably to the
north of the vertical, and that near Remini considerably to
the south.—( Dublin Philosophical Journal.)

12. On the cutting of Steel by soft Iron.
By Thomas Kendall, Jun.

As the subject of cutting steel by soft iron has excited consi-
derable attention, and seems not yet to be exhausted, I take the
liberty to communicate such facts connected with the subject as
have come under my own observation, together with some
remarks, which are at your disposal. In the cutting of revolving
iron by tempered steel, experience proves that there is a certain
yelocity beyond which it cannot be well and freely done. Much
depends on the purity and state of the iron; much on the form,

* See Annals for January, p. 74.

316 Scientific Notices-—Miscellanedus. [APRIL,

temper, and sharpness of the cutting instrument ; much whether
the work is performed dry or kept constantly wet with water or
oil; and also much on the disposition of the particles of iron to
chip. There is a great difference in different samples of iron in
that respect, but much more different in copper and its alloys,
some of which, although sufficiently soft, can scarcely be
wrought by turning, filing, drilling, or grinding. Whenever the
steel or cutting tool, from any cause, ceases to act on the iron,
and the heat is perhaps at the maximum, the iron, if revolving,
will act on the steel; the greater the velocity the more freely it
acts, and the progress is marked by different appearances
corresponding with the different velocities. In the case of cut-
ting a saw plate with soft iron, if moving with a velocity barely
sufficient to act on the steel, this becomes heated beyond the
cutting tool to a blue colour; if moving with greater velocity,
no change of colour is seen, except on the burr raised by the
tool; if with greater still, no change of colour is perceived,
although the movement is attended by the combustion of most
of the particles disengaged. These become ignited because,
being connected with, and forming a part of, the plate, they are

the motion disengaged with a velocity that does not admit
of the transmission of the heat to the other parts of the steel.
Perhaps the ignition is commenced, and carried to that degree
denominated black heat, before the particles are separated, and.
is completed by the friction attending the separation. Itis a
fact, perhaps not greatly known to those who have written on
the subject, that af the heat called black heat (but which is in fact
nearly or quite a red heat in the dark), steed 2s broken or sepa-
rated by fracture,* with much less force than when heated less or
more, the requisite temperature varying probably in proportion
to the carbon contained in the steel,

The result of the copper wheel mentioned by MM. Darier and
Colladon having no action on the steel, goes far to prove that
the effect depends at least as much on heat softening the steel,
to a certain degree, as on percussion, copper having but little
disposition to generate heat under any circumstances, a fact
duly appreciated by the manufacturers of gunpowder.

The reason why “ the heat should be nearly all concentrated
to the steel, and scarcely perceptible in the iron,” I think to be
this; the percussion against the steel is condinuad, but against any
one part of the iron cutter, perhaps not more than from 34, togt>
parts of the time; consequently the heat received by each would
be in an inverse proportion of the thickness of the steel to the

* The disposition to be easily separated by fracture at a particular heat exists in
carbonized or cast iron,. in the alloys of copper and of tin, is very perceptible in flint
glass, and perhaps in all factitious metallic compounds ; some requiring a moderate, and
Others a more intense heat.

1826.} New Scientific Books. 317

circumference of the iron, after. making the proper allowance’ for
what may be thrown off from the circular cutting iron in its
passage through the air, which must be considerable.

P.S. As evidence of the absence of heat, it is stated in the
memoir of MM. Darier and Colladon, that the small particles of
steel adhering to the edge of the cutter, “ seen through a lens,
did not appear as if untempered, and when tried with a file were
found as hard as the best tempered steel.”

I have never observed the appearance of the particles, or
examined their temper, but have examined the burr raised ‘in
cutting a plate of steel, which, before the operation, was suffi-
ciently soft to file with ease, but in the operation became hard-
ened on the outer edge much harder than before, which was
evidently caused by the great heat, and by being suddenly
cooled by the current of air caused by the motion of the cutter;
the same would be the case with particles disengaged by heat,
or when hot, and adhering to the edge of the cutter; the process
of hardening in air is applied by artists to the hardening of very
small drills.—(Silliman’s Journal.)

ARTICLE XIV.
NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.

PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION,

_ In a few days will be published, a new Supplement to the Pharma
copeias of London, Edinburgh, Dublin, and Paris; forming a com-
plete Dispensatory and Conspectus, including Patent Medicines,
Paints, Varnishes, &c. 8vo. By James Rennie, AM. Lecturer on
Chemistry, &c.

The Journal of Capt. Parry’s Third Voyage to the North Pole.

An Acccunt of the Diseases peculiar to Women. By Robert
Gooch, MD. 8vo.

JUST PUBLISHED.

A. Corn. Celsi Medicine, libri 8. Concinnavit Edw. Milligan.
8vo. 16s.

Surgical Observations on the Constitutional Origin and Treatment
of Local Diseases. By John Abernethy, FRS. ‘Third Edition. 8vo.
8s.

Donn’s Hortus Cantabrigiensis. Eleventh Edition, with numerous
Additions and Corrections. By John Lindley, FLS, &c. 8vo. 10s, 6d.

318 (Netw Pateneas”! [AvnYE;

A Visit to the Falls of the Niagara. By John Maude. Royal 8vo.
1. 11s. 6d.

Letters from the East. By John Carne, Esq. of Queen’s College,
Cambridge. 8vo. 18s.

The Edinburgh Encyclopedia. Vol. 17, Part2. 4to. I. 1s.

- ARTICLE XV.
NEW PATENTS.

J. Fraser, Houndsditch, engineer, for an improved method of con-
structing capstans and windlasses.—Feb. 25.

B. Newmarch, Cheltenham, for certain inventions to preserve vessels
and other bodies from the dangerous effects of external or internal
violence on land or water, and other improvements connected with the
same.—Feb. 25.

B. Newmarch, Cheltenham, for a preparation to be used either in
solution or otherwise, for preventing decay in timber or other sub-
stances, arising from dry rot or other causes.—Feb. 25.

J. Fraser, Houndsditch, engineer, for a new and improved method of
distilling and rectifying spirits and strong waters.—March 4.

R. Midgley, Horsforth, near Leeds, for a method, machine, or
apparatus, for conveying persons and goods over or across rivers or
other waters, and over valleys or other places.—March 4.

G. Anderton, Chickheaton, Yorkshire, worsted spinner, for improve-
ments in the combing or dressing of wool and waste silk.—March 4.

J. Neville, New Walk, Shad Thames, engineer, for a new and
improved boiler or apparatus for generating steam with less expendi-
ture of fuel.— March 14.

N. H. Manicler, Great Guildford-street, Southwark, chemist, for a
new preparation of fatty substances, and the application thereof to the
purposes of affording light—March 20.

1826.] Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journal. 319

ARTICLE XVI.
METEOROLOGIGAL TABLE.

24, N 30°54 50°49 39 35
25S E| 30°49 30°46 34 32
26) E 30°46 30°43 36 Q4
27|' E 30°43 | 30:39 36 28
2815 E] 30°39 30°26 39 27
29| N 30°26 | 29-99 43 28
30| N 29:99 29°92 44, 39
31) N 29°99 29°99 45 38

—

eee
BaroMeErer. THERMOMETER.
1826, | Wind. Max. Min. Max. | Min. | Evap. | Rain.
1st Mon
Jan. 1}/N W| 30°10 (| 29:90 47 36 —_ —
9° EB 30°10 30°02 46 28 —_
ar 30°08 30°02 46 _ 33 —_
4| E 80°08 30:06 36 34 _
5) E 30:06 29-94 38 33 — 16
6| E 30 00 29°94 40 oh _— 04
ZN £E| 30-11 30:00 38 33 _ ,
8S E} 30°19 Fe 0 ja 3 | 33 25 —_— _
9| £E 30°11 50°01 ae 20 —
10N Wi 30-01 29'88 32 25 —_—
11lIN W) 29:96 29°87 35 18 — —
12iIN W! 30:13 29:96 32 17 —
13) W 30:26 OURS |) 3d 16 —
14) W 30°43 80°26 Q4 10 —
15|IN W| 30°67 30°43 29 12 —
16N W) 30°72 30:67 30 15 —
17'S W| 30°72 30°65 33 22 _
188 W| 30°65 30°28 46 35 —_
19N W 30°34 30 25 Ad 34 —
20N W| 30°35 30°34 46 39. —
211I8 Wi 30°34 30°31 44, bod ‘AS |
22\N ‘W 30°35 30°34 42 32 —_
23) W 30°55 30°35 43 33 _
Re

3

oe

30°72 29°90 47 10 al *20

The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours,
beginning at 9 A. M. on the day indicated in the first column, A dash denotes that
the result is included in the next following observation.

820 MreHoward’s Metcorological Journal... [Ari 1826,

REMARKS.

First Month.—1!. Rainy morning. 2—4. Fine. 5. Snow and sleet. 6, 7. ‘Clondy.
8. Fine: very bleak wind, with occasional showers of hail and snow. 9. Fine,
10. Overcast: bleak. 11. Snow. 12, 13. Fine. 14. Foggy. 15. Very fine
much rime on the trees. 16,17. Ditto. 18. Fine. 19. Cloudy: a gentle thaw.
20. Cloudy. 21. Foggy: drizzly. 22—25. Foggy. 26—30. Fine. 31, Overcast*

RESULTS.

Winds: N,4; NE, 1; E, 8; SE,3; SW,3; W,3; NW, 9.

Barometer : Mean height

For themonth.....+.2++.+eeseseeeceeeeeeereses+++ 30234 inches,

Thermometer: Mean height

For the month. ....++seeseseesscessenarseserrerees 33*193°
BpnpRGORON cts sie votblas Cefn nlcmoninns Grae ands arePn th wal 0-71 In.

Je OT RABE Cate AA yi a! aeaee PRC e we eee ete eeseereeeeesreee see 0°20.

Laboratory, Stratford, Second Month, 27, 1826. R. HOWARD.

»

ON

es

ANNALS

OF

PHILOSOPHY.
MAY, 1826.

Artic.e [.

On a new Application of the Method of Parameters to the Deter-
mination of certain Curves. By Henry Moseley, Esq. BA.
of St. John’s College, Cambridge.

(To the Editors of the Anals of Philosophy.)

GENTLEMEN, |
Ir the tangent to any point (X, Y,) of a curve be given in posi-
tion in terms of the co-ordinates of a corresponding point (7, ¥,)
in another curve, whose equation fz y = 0, is also given ; there
exist among the quantities concerned the three following equa-
tions by the elimination of (x) and (y), between which the former
curve is determined. /

aF*. dF ph ee
hs +7, 27 =0--: wap areeea bcbwi © (2)
SOY =O. ccccccvccesevcecees seveaenats (3)

For let the tangents to any two points in the required curve
intersect in the point (X’, Y’;); and let the positions of these
tangents be given according to the supposition in terms of (2, y),
(v7 + Axa, y + A y) co-ordinates of corresponding pomts in the
given curve.
There are, therefore given the equations
FX’ Y’ ry =0
FX Y@+An)(y7+ Ay)=0
From the last, we obtain by expansion,
FN Y ay+ —Ar+ P(Aa) ab
ee +Q(Ar)(Ay) 7 =0
+ ayy +R(A yy

j * F is here written for F X Y x y.
New Series, vou, X1. Y

322 Mr.'Moseley on a new Application of the Method of [May,

Therefore, by the former,

dF dF Ay y my bs
Now let the tangents move up to one another until they
become consecutive, and ultimately intersect in the point (X, Y,)
of the required curve.* meets!
Then since A x and A y are evanescent, and X’, Y’, become

X and Y, we have,

dF dF dy
Pech py wie

The above is the Equation (2).
Also by the Equation F X’ Y’ x y = 0, we have ,
FiX Yaa y =.0
ec i the Equation (1); and (8) is given by hypothesis.—
6 Example 2.—To investigate general formule for the determi-
nation CS ees oe a curve. = wi aaa rary)
Let (X, x e correspondirg points in the curve
its Aaa and 0) the length of a Ee bao TO
common origin to the point (x, y,); then evidently
8? (Xo Hix) (Vimy) escvivieain oes Cae gelxs
differentiating with respect to x, y, and s (a function of these
variables). af SVIND

: dy
K+ a) = Oy)

-

iE i Og ger IY, | A, | (2)
Sx + ay + -y 3

Eliminating w andy between these equations and the given

Equation y = / x of the evolute, we have the required Bs am

(in X and Y) to the involute, ~~ sient

yt

Thus in the cycloid, since athe . ?
eo eins. :
Sax =(X +2) +(¥ — y) if

4a=(XtH+tU4NYS
Also dy (Asuna fodlt mond

dx E
2Q2a—-x

r a ‘ & Aa—Y-—ayea
“8ax=(X4+ 24+ =F Gaba)

we (y = 7m ==

* The curve may evidently be considered as the locus of the ultimate intersections of
its consecutive tangents. .

1826.] Parameters to the Determination of certain Curves. 323

16a? a2 —8ax _ flac —8ax(X +2)
Db La) wothalo +(X + aya

“ (X+a"%=4Xoer

-. (& ar) = 0

“2k ee

8aX = 4X? +(y¥— YY

“. (y — Y) =2(2aX — X*)3

_ QaX—X9? a¥ | @a-X)

é i aX @aX-x4?

ay xe
pitt gmt fa = x)
~The equation to a cycloid, equal and similar to the former,
having its origin at the extremity of the base instead of the
vertex,—a known property of the curve.

On the above method of the involute, we may make the
following remarks.

1. The involute is in all cases determinable in finite algebraical
terms when the evolute is rectifiable. .
~ 9. Where the length of the evolute is expressed by a transcen-
dental function, the equation to the involute is always affected,
by a similar function.

Example 2.—To investigate formule determining immediately
the involute to a caustic by refraction. .

P Pa : dha
Let S be the radiating point, and A P the refracting surface,
and 8 P, 8 P’, consecutive rays, refracted so as to intersect in
Q. Produce Q P,Q P’, to M, M’, so that P M = 5*, P’ M’ =

S’, then since by the nature of caustics, we have ultimately

™
¥2

~

324 Mr. Moseley on anew Application of the Method of [May,
SP+mPQ=SP’+mP’Q

Se PQs 4PQ
OrPM+PQ=PM+PQ ©
- QM = QM’ } Ds
and the same being true for all positions of M similarly deter-
mined, the locus of M is the involute to the locus of Q, i. e. to
the caustic.
Now to determine the locus of M, we have

(X —ay + YS yp a HS oD

and differentiating with respect to rand y. Since the position
(of the normal P M and the point M, and .°.) of the tangent at. M
is a function of the co-ordinates of P, we get i i Being

1 d d

—(2 +952) +(X—-a2)+(V-y)=0

4 ern ye dy\ m?-1 ‘

eX $V = (ct y 2) eet Oe
Eliminating x and y between the Equations (1) and (2), and
the given equation to the refracting surface, we have’ the
required equations in X and Y. rn Nias
Thus when the refraction is made
at a plane surface AP; taking A for
the origin, if A S = a, we have

bak

Y-yp + Ra
ha
Y= iY
Y-y= a

took? = (m1) je =f

m? ‘ ~~ a tl
the equation to an ellipse or hyperbola, according as (#) is less
or greater than unity. nino? 14 1980

bibs ei

When m equals unity, the general equations become sam104 8
(X Sap FC Ry Sat eye oped 8
X+Y¥Z=0 Pov ib ey od Dspeioi OTs ge

or tid ive Te Fae ae bet be bi sind : 4 batonWot dot gains
Or Se Vea Ok et Nw ot Ore tee Chic te

ites Xdzx + Ydady= 0. ee ee cen ree sseeve MOV ys

1826.] Parameters to the Determination of certain Curves. 325

The above are the equations to the involute of a caustic by
reflexion.

Lxample 3.—Vf a plane curve roll on another similar and equal
curve to determine the path of a given pot in the rolling curve.

Let there be taken for origin a point in the fixed similarly
situated to the given point in the rolling curve. Whence we
have | , |

58 DL (XK-cP + VYoyrarry ‘
Or, =X? + Y?— 2(Xa+ Vy) =0...... (1)

And since the principle we have demonstrated is manifestly
applicable to this case, we get differentiating with respect to x
and y.

dba Kd xt VY dy = 0. ecccvvscsecveees (2)
. Thus if the curves in question be rectangular hyperbolas and
the generating point, the centre of the rolling hyperbola

e— y= a?

“dy =7du
and by (2) Xy+Yure=0
7 wX (’?—a)e+ Yo = 0.

se. Ma
Hence we have . q
Xa
ite ahi (8 — yt
r Ya

» _..*» by Equation (1), observing that y is greater than Y,
Ces Roop Mian dren,

; ; (xe xy»?
ats X? + y = 2 a (X? | Y*)8

the equation to a leminiscata having double the axis of the

from the centre of an hyperbola is the involute to a leminiscata |
of double the axis. ,

326 Mr. Scanlan on a Volatile Oil from Soap Ley. (May,

ArtTic.e II.

On a Volatile Oil, possessing peculiar Properties, obtained from
. Soap Ley. By M. Scanlan, Esq.* Dials

In making iodine from “ Soaper’s Salt Ley,” as recommended
by Dr. Ure, ] obtained a substance not mentioned by him, and
which could not have escaped his notice, did the ‘‘ brown iodic
liquor” employed by that chemist afford it. tM

The soap makers here sell their sa/t ley to persons who evapo-
rate it, separate the muriate of potash, by crystallization, for the
alum makers, and when an abundant crop of crystals is no longer
afforded, the mother liquor, which contains hydriodate of soda,
is run down to dryness, mixed with coal ashes, and fused in a
reverberatory furnace. This forms the black ash which is again
employed in the manufacture of soap. It is this mother liquor
on which I operated; it is loaded with animal matter which is
not entirely separated from it by considerable excess of acid.

In the process for obtaining iodine, from this liquor, there
distils over a dense oily fluid, of a deep-black colour, immiscible
with, and heavier than the acid liquor that rises at the same
time. This is the substance in question, saturated with iodine,
a large quantity of which it dissolves as it distils. When freed
from loosely adhering iodine and washed with water, it has
specific gravity 1°39; and rolls about under water with the mo-
bility of mercury. A drop ofit in this state, brought to a large
surface of water, spreads rapidly over it, and instantly evaporates.
Exposed to air on a plane of glass, it evaporates more slowly,
the iodine disappearing first. Submitted to distillation, iodine
rises first, but is again dissolved by the oily liquor, as it distils.
It is soluble in alcohol at-850, in every proportion, from which
it is separated by water, apparently unchanged. i

Potash water separates the iodine; forming iodate and hydrio-
date of potash, the solution cf the latter holds dissolved a portion
of the oily substance. atl

Frequent agitation, for a few hours, in contact with iron
filings and water,. also separates the iodine; and the resulting
hydriodate takes up some of the oily matter.

Digested upon iron filings without water, the iodine disap-
pears, but more slowly; and crystals are deposited, which I
suppose to be iodide of iron. In neither case is there any per-
ceptible elevation of temperature. jd) AesGy

Freed from iodine, by potash water, the colour of this. oily
matter is yellow; when tasted, the first impression is cinnamon-
sweet, afterwards penetrating and stimulant. In this state it is

-

* Dublin Philogophical Journal +:

1826.}) Mr. Scanlan on a Volatile Oil from Soap Ley. 327

also soluble in alcohol, and is again separable by water ; it
readily and entirely evaporates, leaving no stain on paper. It
is little inflammable, depositing abundance of carbon, as it
burns: the colour of its flame is pale green.* | It is soluble in
caustic ammonia; it dissolves camphor.

_ Nitric acid did not inflame it, but produced increase of tem-
perature ; and in one instance changed the colour to a beautiful
pink. Oxalic acid is formed by the action of nitric acid upon it.

All the iodine I have prepared from soap ley is contaminated
with this substance, even when well washed with water, dried on
blotting paper, and exposed for some time to the air.

In forming hydriodate of iron with iodine of my own prepara-
tion, in order to make hydriodate of potash, I had always observed
a smell closely resembling water recently distilled from horse-
radish, and an oily appearance on the neck of the flask, which
was not the case with iodine bought of Messrs. Herrings and
Burbige, London. ;

_ To ascertain the cause of this difference, I submitted eight
troy ounces of iodine, prepared by myself, with iron filings and
water, to distillation in a retort, and obtained about thirty or
forty drops of a heavy oil, differing from that first obtained in
its colour, which was somewhat deeper, and in smell and taste,
both of which were like horse-radish, though not quite so pene-
trating. A similar quantity of London iodine did not even
flavour the water distilled in the experiment.

From the foregoing it appears, that there must be some great
difference between our ley and that of England and Scotland,
which probably may be accounted for by the fact, that the soap-
boilers here use large quantities of fat, partially decomposed in
the roasting of meats, in fabricating their soaps ; which to those
who prepare muriate of potash from soap ley, is a source of
annoyantice, hindering the free crystallization of the salt, after it
has arrived at a certain density,

I can in no way account for the formation of this oily sub-
stance, unless it be, that the partially decomposed animal matter
above-mentioned enters into some peculiar sort of combination
with the hydriodate in the kelp ley, and is subsequently further
decomposed by the sulphuric acid, used in eliminating the
iodine. If to the concentrated soap ley boiling, a considerable
excess of sulphuric acid be added, there separates a black sub-
stance, of the consistency of pharmaceutical extract, which,
when heated by itself, melts and puffs up, and when cold is
brittle like pitch, not unlike the substance which results from
the decomposition of alcohol by sulphuric acid, in making
sulphuric ether, and perhaps attributable to changes not very
dissimilar, inher verti "
Very complicated effects seem to be produced by the action

, * Not unlike chloric ether,

328 M. Vauquelinona [May |

of the sulphuric acid and manganese on the soap ley; for,
beside the iodine and oily substance already mentioned, there’
are formed some white transparent acicular crystals, at the com-'—
mencement ofthe process, before any iodine has risen; but they are
soon dissolved by water which rises subsequently, And towards’
the end of the process, some opaque, yellow, arborescent crys-
tals form; the former U could never obtain in quantity to
examine; the latter [ found to be a compound of iodine and
carbon, which I have since formed by the action of iodine and
potash on alcohol.* ys

‘Atte TL: onan

On anew Variety of Wolfram, or Tungstate of Tron.
By M. Taaatta-t

MM. Deruuyar were the first who found in wolfram the
acid which Scheele had discovered in the tungsten or calcareous
tungstate of the Swedes. They discovered moreover that this
mineral was mixed with oxide of manganese; but they did not
attempt to ascertain the state or proportion in which it existed
in it.

Some years afterwards M. Hecht and I performed a fresh
analysis of wolfram at the School of Mines, the results were,

Pang stac eer .)6). 4,041 dues vied o10)6:0 srqera ld
Oxide ofiFon i 8 2e60 20) 0s ayatered LE
Oxide of manganese.......seecseeveee G

91 |

Lastly, M. Berzelius, in his Determinations of the Elements

of inorganic Matter, fixed the composition of this mineral as
follows :
DBUSGUG ACI. « 40;- 4109 dogusensnas, LeTOOe

DERE AE IKON ie wotyie npnel we agi eee A Pe
Oxide of manganese........0++-+. 5°670

97-930

M. Berzelius, supposing that the iron and manganese existed
in the wolfram in the state of protoxides, calculated the relation
between the oxygen of these bases and that of the acid. .

M. Alluau, sen. who has always, as is well known, much occu-
pied himself with the mineralogy of his country, Haute-Vienne,
has lately sent me for analysis, among other minerals, a speci-

* See Annals of Philosophy, New Series, No. 55, p. 14.
+ Annales de Chimie et de Physique,

1826. new Variety of Wolfram. 329

men of tungstate of iron, in which he suspected the presence of
yttria and columbium. I could not find either of these bodies,
but I found the proportions of its elements different from those
previously determined to exist in wolfram by the chemists above
cited.

In the first analysis, we obtained the following results :

Peroxide of iron . ...seesseeese+ 160
| Peroxide of manganese.....-.-+. 14°8
consequently Tungstic acid . ...++eeeeeereres 69-2

——os

100°0

On examining theiron, we found that it still contained some
manganese, and the latter contained a little carbonate of lime.
{n a second analysis, we had

Peroxide of iron . pecseeeecesees 15:6

Peroxide of manganese. ..... exe) LOO
consequently Tungstic acid .....sesereeeeenes 68-4
ly 100-0

| ‘Lastly, a third analysis gave,

Peroxide of iron. ssssvecese ee ee) 138
san Peroxide of manganes€ «..+++++06 13:0
consequently Tungstic acid... .+++seeserseres 73°2

There is, therefore, in this case a larger proportion of manga-
nese than in common wolfram ; but the question is, whether it
is actually a new variety, or if the difference which occurs is
not dependent upon the less perfect methods then employed. It
is, therefore, requisite to state how | operated.

_ 1. [fuse the powdered mineral in a platina crucible, with one
and a half its weight of caustic potash, adding a little water to
facilitate their mixture.
2. When the matter is in a state of very perfect fusion, which
occurs readily, I put the whole into water, and keep it boiling
for some time to accelerate the precipitation of the oxides of
iron and manganese.
3. | draw off the clear liquor by a syphon, and wash the resi-
-duum witly boiling water till it ceases to be alkaline.

4, Then I dry the oxides at:ared heat, and weigh them.

5. 1 dissolve them in muriatic acid, dilute the solution with
water, and add a little carbonate of potash, until the iron is per-
-fectly separated, and the solution is colourless.
6. 1 filter it through dried and weighed paper, and when itis

well washed, I heat it in a platina crucible ; but as a small quan-

“tity always remains upon the filter, L dry.it at a temperature of

830 ~ SM. Vauquelin on a [May,

212° Fahr. and weigh it again, or I burn it, and also the same
quantity of filtering paper, and keep the ashes for a counterpoise
of those of the filter. 4 SHG Baked T 4
. As to the manganese which remains in the solution, I precipi-
tate it by subcarbonate of potash: it appears in the state of
white flocks, which soon diminish in volume and become gra-
nular. The vessel must be shaken for some time in order to
prevent the substance from adhering to it. I entreat chemists
to excuse me for entering into these minute details, but they
may not, perhaps, be useless to'some persons. =
he quantity of the bases here obtained being too great for the
saturation of the tungstic acid, the following experiment was
made. initiate AO
. Five grammes of wolfram treated by potash gave 1 gramme
59 centigrammes of iron and manganese; the analysis of these
1:59 yielded 69 cent. of iron, 65 of manganese, and 19 of silica ;
these quantities divided by 5, in order to convert them into hun-
dredths, give 13°8 of iron, 13 manganese, and 3°8 silica ; but on
examining the manganese, there were found 8 cent. of carbonate
of lime, which also divided by 5, give 16 milligrammes to be
deducted ; the oxide of manganese is thus reduced to 11-4
grammes. 4

As four analyses were performed which gave the same result
within about one-hundredth, and as the above experiment was
performed with the greatest precaution, there is ground for
hoping that it is as correct as can be expected by chemical
means.

In adding together the different quantities of matter which
have been mentioned, we get 31°48; but of this quantity there
are 4°68 of silica and lime, which unquestionably form no essen-
tial part of the mineral: this reduces the iron and manganese
to 26°8 ; thus subtracting these 468 of silica and lime, it appears
that only 95°32 cent. of wolfram were operated upon, which
consequently raises the quantity of iron to 14-462, manganese to
11:949, and tungstic acid to 73°599 cent. On this occasion the
‘analysis of common wolfram was repeated, and the results were
the following :

PerOXIMe Of IFO 9:5;0,. on wisine & <u bienanine Ie
Peroxide of manganese. .s.,...+-0+- O4
DUC. tte on aeusitiall hh Bhi tthe eld Maciel
A Tr Tittn, bs ws so sali thasaa eatin nalaien owed 1:6

But subtracting from this amount 6-1 of silica and alumina,
which ought to be considered as foreign admixture, the iron will
-become 20-745, the manganese 5°744, and. the tungstic acid
-eonsequently 73°511. It is: then evident that this kind of

1826.] new Variety of Wolfram. 331

tungstate of iron is different from that previously mentioned, for
the quantity of manganese does not amount to one-half; but it
is remarkable that the quantity of acid is nearly the same. |

Two analyses of common wolfram were performed by directly
acting upon it with muriatic acid, and we obtained in one expe-
riment 70, and in the other 72 of tungstic acid. The operation
is very long and tedious, because the muriatic acid decomposes
the last portions of wolfram with difficulty, and also because the
tungstic acid adheres to the sides of the vessel, if it be not very
frequently stirred.

-. When the acid ceases to become coloured, and the residuum
is of a pure yellow colour, it must be washed with water, and
afterwards repeatedly treated with ammonia; if there remain
anything insoluble in the ammonia, as most frequently happens,
it ought to be white ; this residuum is to be dried and weighed,
and its weight deducted from that of the wolfram employed.
.This method is inexact, unless we ascertain that the muriatic
acid has not dissolved either alumina or lime; this is undoubt-
edly the reason why less tungstic acid. was obtained by this
method than by potash.

_ When wolfram in fine powder is long digested in muriatic
acid, it is entirely decomposed ; but in this case, the quantity of
acid must be large, and it must be very strong. When the
ferruginous solution is poured and mixed with water, it becomes
milky, and .deposits a flocky yellow matter, which is tungstic
acid : when this has been well washed, it would seem that its
purity might be depended upon ; it contains, however, a little
aron, for if it be dissolved in ammonia, it assumes a blue tint,
and leaves after solution a yellow substance, which is oxide of
iron. 5)

-_ It thus appears that muriatic acid, whether cold or hot, never
completely decomposes tungstate of iron: it forms a supertung-
state, a portion of which dissolves in the muriatic acid when it is
sufficiently strong, and its quantity large; the reason why
tungstic acid becomes blue when it is dissolved in an alkali is
andoubtedly because a small quantity of tungstate of iron is
re-formed ; and this being decomposed by the excess of alkali,
oxide of iron is left.

Wishing to know the absolute quantity of oxygen contained
in wolfram, I reduced 100 parts of common tungstate by a strong
heat; it lost 40 parts. In another experiment. made nearly at
the same temperature, but longer continued, the loss was 46 per
cent. The iron which this mineral contains being 20°745 per
cent. would suffer a loss of 4:50; and the oxide of manganese
being 5:4, it would lose 52 centigrammes, which amount toge-
ther to 5:09, the remainder of the loss, amounting to 32-91,
must have been derived from the tungstic acid. J oak
/ As the oxides of manganese and izon amount together to

332 Ona new Variety of Wolfram. [Max,

26-945, the tungstic acid ought to make up 100, that is to say,
‘73°88 ; this comes very near the result obtained by Berzelinie
who estimates the proportion of tungstic acid in wolfram at
74666. These 73-885 would contain 34:96 of oxygen, 100 of
this acid consequently contain 47-20. ty

In making this calculation, I suppose that 100 of protoxide
of iron contain 22°57 of oxygen, and that it is in the state of
protoxide that it exists in the tungstate of iron; I also allow
that 100 of protoxide of manganese contain 28-107 of oxygen,
according to Arfwedson; these results do not, however, at all
agree with the analyses of MM. Delhuyar, Bucholz, and Berze-
lius, all of whom allow only a fifth of oxygen in the tungstic acid.
I nevertheless believe that I did not lose any thing in my expe-
ximents, the metallic mass obtained being very even, and
perfectly entire. J shall, moreover, mention how I operated :
the wolfram was put into a small charcoal crucible, placed in
another of charcoal, and with a stopper of the same material,
and these were introduced into a Hessian crucible, and heated
an a forge for an hour. Yuk

Not knowing to what fo attribute this difference, I imagined
that part of the tungstic acid had been volatilized. To satisfy
myself respecting it, 1 heated some tungstic acid in a moderate
fire, but sufficient to reduce it, and I had actually a loss of only
20 per cent.; but having another time submitted it to a very
strong and long continued heat, it lost 30 per cent. A portion
of the metals was, therefore, volatilized. bebe

Although I have supposed in my calculation that the iron in
the wolfram is in the state of protoxide, yet some appearances
‘which this metal exhibited in the course of my analyses left some
doubts on this subject; [ thought it proper, therefore, to subject
them to the test of experiment, and the results obtained were as
follows : |

Into a solution of one gramme of crystallized sulphate of iron,
I poured a solution of gold, as neutral as possible; there were
obtained 22 centigrammes of gold ; I also added solution o poll
an excess to the solution of iron obtained by muriatic acid from
five grammes of wolfram. The quantity of metallic gold was
37 cent. ; butin a gramme of crystallized sulphate of iron, there
is about 26 cent. of protoxide, and in five grammes of wolfram
there is at least 72 cent. of the same oxide ; this quantity of iron,
if it were in the state of protoxide, according to the above pro-
portions, ought to precipitate 76°154 grammes of metallic gold,
and it gave only 37: there is, therefore, only about half the iron
contained in the wolfram which is in the state of protoxide. It
will be, perhaps, objected, that during the decomposition of the
wolfram, which can be effected only with the assistance of ebul-
lition, a part of the iron is peroxidized; but this operation
being effected by muriatic acid, which is concentrated, and in

1826.) Mr. Stephens on the Influence of Chemistry, 5c. 353
great excess, there is not much probability of this effect being

oduced. Besides when wolfram in impalpable powder is
= ested in cold concentrated acid in a vesse from which the air
is excluded, it imparts to the acid a deep-yellow colour ; and
this, it appears to me, would not happen if the iron were entirely
‘at a minimum. If what I have now stated be correct, it results
that the relation of 1 to 3 between the oxygen of the bases and

that of the tungstic acid is not exact, at least in this kind of
combination. , , ;

BPN On Ai SS

Articte IV.

‘Lhe Influence of Chemistry on the Affairs of Life considered : ina
Series of Essays. By Edward B. Stephens, Chemical Assistant
~ to the Royal Dublin Society.
E (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)
GENTLEMEN,
ops) Bssav 1—Its Effects on the Human Character.

. “Amapst the branches of useful knowledge engrafted on the
understanding, chemistry flourishes conspicuously. The mental

energies It developes, and the physical benefits it incessantly
yields render it alike interesting to the artist and the philo-
sopher.

Those who are unacquainted with this engaging science have
no conception of the enlarged field of thought which it displays,
or the power it bestows, to unveil the mysteries, and wield the
energies of nature. . The value of life is doubled to the chemist,
for a. new world is opened to him, He is gifted with the power
of effecting at will a secondary creation; whilst every step he
ascends up the hill of science reveals new prospects, impresses
on him more clearly the idea of his natural ignorance, and the
extent of the regions of knowledge to be yet explored, and thus

ures his humility. Habitually led to reflect on the outward.
urce of all his notions and knowledge, he cannot indulge the
unphilosophic thought, that any discovery or invention of his is
a proper subject. of pride.
_ The unlimited abundance of the chemist’s materials tends
greatly to facilitate his accurate and practical knowledge of the
science, _Every animal,—each leaf, fruit, and seed,—nay, every
stone which the earth presents, may be made the subject of an
instructive lesson. The pupil may see, feel, taste, or smell, the
objects of his investigation, and form such an effectual associa-
tion of ideas on any i ae he is interested in, that memory has
_no labour to perform, His information is accumulated without
e., ainful effort which accompanies the getting a task, and
which in classical and legal acquirements is emphatically termed

334 Mr. Stephens on the Influence of Chemistry [Mavy,

study. His business is not with abstract thoughts ot words
alone; the whole material world is his cabinet; his hands are
actively employed, while his observation is pleasingly excited 5
and the various remarkable facts and natural wonders presented
in the course of his experiments, become stored in his memory
with the same facility that he notes interesting occurrences of
ordinary life.
Although the information which chemistry leads to is inex
haustible, it fortunately happens that a pupil can acquire a
precise notion of its nature and objects at the very first. After
a few hours familiar explanation of its principles, and of the
generalities relating to combustion, earths, metals, acids, alka-
lies, &c. he may proceed by himself to investigate any particular
part of the science he is interested in (manufacturing, medical,
agricultural, mineralogical, &c.) ; whereas in other branches of
knowledge, for instance, language, a teacher is as necessary as
a book, and the student is not competent tu write an essay, or
venture into a conversation, till he is familiar withall or most of
the words and idioms composing it. As the chemical pupil
advances, he habitually attains what Benjamin Franklin would
have called the morals of chemistry, and in proportion to his
devotion to the science, acquires a character strongly tinctured
by the favourable circumstances peculiar to it. Such habits
(unlike those generated by abstract studies, which frequently
unfit a man for social intercourse, and for the active cares of
common life) are all highly favourable to the attainment of
eminence in any other science or profession. As education and
the formation of character are now subjects of universal and
well-merited attention, it may be productive of general advan-
tage to review in detail all the valuable habits which become
gradually established in the mind of a youth who enters with
spirit on the acquisition of chemical knowledge. Sree
The feeling which is first roused to action is curiosity, to
know the cause of striking phenomena, and the way to producé
each brilliant effect at pleasure. Whilst his mind is thus open
to the influence of admiration, many useful collateral truths may
be instilled with ease ; these being associated with pleasurable
ideas generally make a lasting impression. In repeating inte-
resting experiments with his own hands, he soon becomes prac-
tically convinced of the necessity of acquiring dexterity, and of
the comforts that spring from neatness. Continually exposed
to accidents which occur like summary penalties on the instant
he abates his cautiousness or self possession ; he finds himsel
in an excellent practical school for the acquisition of both ; and
generally attains considerable proficiency, sooner than would
seem possible to any one accustomed to create these qualities by
precept alone. . Patt}
His first experimental efforts will probably be rendered abor-

1826.1 onthe Affairs of Life. 335°

tive by his eagerness to pursue several interesting objects at
once; but he will soon learn by experience the valuable truth
which constituted the chief rule of the great De Witt’s policy,
that he can only succeed by attending to one thing at a time.
This habit attained, he is on the high road to knowledge, but
several others are essential to success ; patience and systematic
perseverance in research, cleanliness and a love of order in appa-
ratus and materials, are useful in every operative pursuit, but
indispensible in this. His brief records require at the instant an’
exertion of mental exactness, comprehensiveness, and perspi-
cuity. He must continue in the hourly practice of these humble
virtues, to derive any real benefit from his labours, and to avoid
being blocked up at the end of each day’s work with a mass of
unsightly and unserviceable matter. .

The delightful mental excitement which sustains and repays
him throughout a course of experimental investigation, is nearly
allied to mingled feelings of curiosity and admiration, which, in
the perusal ofa novel, charms his attention to its successive inci-
dents. He is led on through adventures and difficulties—through
doubts, mysteries, and partial discoveries, ardently engrossed by
his subject, and confident in the consistency of the author, who
rewards his perseverance by permitting gleams of light at inter-
vals to dawn upon his anxious mind,—now faint,—now strong,
till the long looked-for explanation clears all up at last. But
here the similitude ends. The mind of the novel reader sinks
into comparative languor when his pursuit is ended, and excite-
ment over; whilst the chemist is roused to higher efforts of
discovery by the new information and power which each step in’
his research has rewarded him with. The former is a species of
a passive mental gratification that weakens the taste for profit-
able or useful employment ; whilst the delight enjoyed by the
chemist admits of being heightened by cheering reflections on
the successful exertion of his active faculties, the certainty that’
his labours will be useful to mankind, and the hope that they
will be productive to himself of character, perhaps of fortune.
He finds his mind strengthened by exercise, enlarged by expe-
rience, gratified by discovery, confident from past success, and
in a state of complete preparation to enter again the field of
useful inquiry.

“In going througk a course of experimental chemistry, the
pupil will find himself obliged to abandon so many vulgar errors
and popular prejudices, that he becomes cautious how he adopts
laa on physical subjects, without receiving the best proof
of their correctness that the nature of the case admits of. He.
learns to distinguish between what he knows himself, and what
he hears of. He finds that besides the propositions which he can
believe and disbelieve, there are others respecting which his
limited knowledge does not afford him an opportunity of coming’

336 Mr, Stephens on the Influence of Chemistry [Muayx,

to any conclusion excepting this, that he is totally ignorant of
the matter, and that therefore it becomes him to keep his mind,
epen to conviction, and in a state of philosophical impartiality,
till he acquires the requisite information. Where the subject
admits of experiment, the folly of wordy controversy becomes so
apparent that he loses no time by engaging in it: where it does
not admit of proof, the folly of positiveness is still more evident,
He learns to think and speak of things by weight and measure,
and to affirm respecting them no more than he knows; for in.
this science (unlike those which subsist on opinion) «an inaceu-,
racy is an untruth, and if he value his character, he will care-
fully avoid it by renouncing mere assertion and guess-work.
Chemistry is, in short, the true offspring of, the Baconian
system of creating knowledge, the essence of the experimental
philosophy ; and a youth placed within its sphere of action
(unless he be a grade lower in the creation than his fellow men)
cannot long remain unbenefited by the excellent train of thought
and action which it certainly induces. Every new truth which
enlightens his understanding enables him to judge more cor-
rectly of his previous errors, to doubt his own infallibility; to
encourage the thought with pleasure (so irksome to many) that
he is wiser to day than he was yesterday, and to behold with
admiration and profit the works of nature in progress around.
him, which formerly passed unheeded before his eyes, or con-,
veyed only vague notions to his understanding. If the cultiva-
tion of any particular science tend more than another to fix in,
the mind a rational certainty on religious subjects, and substitute,
confidence in place of doubt, that science 1s undoubtedly che-
mistry. When a man remains incredulous and sceptical on
matters of eternal importance, we generally find that this happens
because his mind is unfurnished with any certain scientific mode
of attaining conviction of the truth, and proving the fallacy of,
visionary objections. The chemist need never remain in doubt,
for he has habitually acquired a readiness of research, and a
teachable spirit of humble inquiry, most favourable to the disco-
very and acknowledgment of truth ;—even when its admission
lowers his self. opinion, destroys his worldly fame, and lays all.
his cherished theories prostrate in the dust. th, hep SRPMS
The time spent in the acquirement of a general knowledge of
the science cannot be deemed a loss in any case; for in this
age of chemical invention, its importance is so manifest, that.
every gentleman is expected to know something of it (and the
earlier in life it enlightens his mind the better) ; and in numerous
female academies, it is now adopted as a necessary part of a
lady’s education. This is a wise arrangement ; for (leaving more
obvious economical advantages aside) the daily portion of hap-.
piness enjoyed by either sex depends so much on finding in
each other a similarity of tastes, and opinions, and of knowledge

1826.} .° °° onthe Affairs of Life. 337)

interesting to both, that every opportunity should be seized om
to render available a source of enjoyment so pure and en-
lightened. ;

But to return.—The performance of a new analysis is in itself
a course of practical education, well calculated to illustrate the
favourable circumstances in which a chemical pupil is placed for
the attainment of valuable habits. His first care is to arrive at
all the precise information which books afford respecting the
genus and species to which the substance under examination
belongs, as well as the results of those who have preceded him
in similar attempts. In this research he is led to compare the.
style and matter of various authors, and ascertain the rise and
progress of truth and error; the former he perceives has beeu
attained only by patient experiment, the latter invariably has
sprung up wherever a point was taken for granted. This is an
excellent lesson for him, and it is rarely forgotten when he
undertakes a similar task.

When thrown on his own resources to perform his analysis,
this apparently simple task often gives scope for the exertion of
the highest species of invention. He summons up every analo-
gous fact previously committed to memory, reviews the whole
store of his knowledge of nature applicable to the present emer-
gency, and selects the re-agents and modes of action apparently
most suitable. Failing, perhaps, in these, after various trials,
he must again return to the review, and investigate with patience
and candour all the probable sources of error in his experiments,
as well as in the analogical reasoning which led to sheng All
this is a work which requires for its execution considerable
industry, discrimination, and accuracy, both in observing results,
and in drawing conclusions from them. His powers of transition
and abstraction are called into life to attend instantly to succes-
sive appearances, and consider them carefully ere they pass
away. Forethought in planning and perseverance in executing
operations of difficulty (perhaps of danger) are alike indispensi-.

e to attain satisfactory results. These valuable qualities, which
are here but slightly touched on, are all properly attainments, |
and are as naturally produced by use and the force of circum-.
stances as strength is acquired by the sailor’s arm, and the
mountaineer’s knee. Like exotic plants they may be altogether
strangers to the soil, but cultivation can make them take root,
and experience proves that under the mental training induced by
chemistry, they thrive and flourish.

In craping up the report of his experiments, the pupil has the
advantage of excellent models to form his taste, and excite his
literary emulation. These are forthe most part characterized by
accuracy, simplicity, perspicuity, and modesty. Inthe analytic
essays of Klaproth, for instance, he will find the most valuable
discoveries successively communicated with an absence of pre-

New Series, vou. Xt. Z

$38 Mr. Stephenson the Influence of Chemistry, &c. [Mavy

tension which leaves him in doubt which most to admire, his
profound sagacity, incessant industry, or engaging modesty.
With such patterns in view, he will be in no danger of:descend-
ing to boasting, mystery, or any of the shallow expedients
resorted to by those who thus endeavour to conceal their igno-
rance. He will observe that the best informed men are ever the
most ready to publish their disappointments and mistakes, and
save to others that time which they had themselves lost,

Perhaps the most valuable result attending the pursuit of
chemistry is the strong incentive it creates in the pupil to pos-
sess himself of a respectable share of knowledge of the several
sciences closely connected with it. Geometry will enable him
to enter clearly into the important study of crystallography.
When he understands algebra thoroughly, he knows he will be
able to pursue the intricacies of the atomic theory. Mineralogy,
from whence he derives his chief materials, has peculiar attrac-
tions, and strong claims on his notice. Geology is so interwoven
with the latter science that his knowledge of either is not com-
plete till he has attained both.

He already possesses the key to medicine, agriculture, and the
various arts and manufactures, whose materials and products
constantly form the subject of his investigations. In any or all
of these, he may acquire pleasing and profitable information, by
pursuing the plan already found to be indispensible in chemistry,
attending to one thing at once. :

Thus it appears that this favoured science, liberal, accurate,
and extensive, is also the true foundation of many arts and
sciences indispensible to our well being; and when we further
reflect on the valuable course of mental.exercise which it pecu-
liarly induces, we may justly award it a high rank on the list of
' knowledge essential to a liberal education.

_ To conclude, the chemist possesses advantages over the mem-
bers of nearly every other profession, and the students of most
other sciences; he need never want pleasing occupation. He
claims a subject in every thing he can touch. He need not
travel in search of interesting materials to act upon, he cannot
travel beyond their reach. He has the power of befriending all
men ; for none can attain a station which will place them above
the want of chemical information. He feels an interest in every
conversation, from the most trivial to the most profound ; from
the composition of the painted cup, or of the social beverage it
contains, to the effects of that powerful agent which, directed by
the genius of Watt, is rapidly changing the state of the civilized
world.

i 1826.) On the Classification of the Strata, &c. 339

ARTICLE V.

On the Classificatian of the Strata which appear on the Yorkshire
” Coast. By the Rev. A. Sedgwick, FRS. Professor of Geology
in the University of Cambridge.

(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)

GENTLEMEN, Feb. 20, 1826.
Tue following remarks on the classification of the strata
which appear on the Yorkshire coast, are principally compiled
from memoranda which I made during an excursion to that part
of our island in the year 1821. It was at first my intention to
examine in detail all the natural sections which are exhibited
between Flamborough Head and Huntcliff; and afterwards to
trace, as far as I could, the more characteristic beds through
the Hambleton hills, the Vale of Pickering, and other places in
the interior of the district. I had, however, hardly commenced
the excursion, when I found that Messrs. Young and Bird, of
Whitby, had nearly completed a work devoted to an illustration
of the geological structure of the north-eastern parts of York-
shire. This information induced me to shorten the task which
I had proposed to myself, and to confine my observations to the
itumnediate neighbourhood of the coast. I have thought it right
to state thus much respecting the materials from which the fol-
lowing remarks are compiled: otherwise the reader might sup-
ye them the result of a more elaborate examination of the
istrict, and on that account be disposed to give them more
bas lieu than they in truth deserve.
he work to which I have alluded appeared in the year 1822 ;
and, with many excellent details, gives a history of the structure
of the whole Yorkshire coast. No attempt is, however, made in
it to connect the phenomena which are so well described, with
the corresponding phenomena which are presented in other parts
England. 1 venture to hope, that the following observations
(which I have drawn up for insertion in the Annals of Philosophy)
will, in some measure, contribute to supply this deficiency, or at
least be the means of calling the attention of those who have
better opportunities of local information to the same subject.
I have the honour to be, Gentlemen,
Your most faithful servant,

on

+f A. Sepewick.
Szer. 1.—Difficulties in classifying the Strata of the Yorkshire
Coast.

~ In examining the structure of the Yorkshire coast, we fortu-

nately meet with no difficulty in pian 4 the true relation

which the great mineral masses bear to each other. For the
z2

840 Prof. Sedgwick on the Classification of the Strata [Mayy,

order of the successive formations, though sometimes disguised
by contortions, or interrupted by dislocations, is so plainly seen
in many fine natural sections as not to remain in any doubt. If
we attempt to connect the formations in question with the con-
temporaneous deposits in the more southern parts of England,
the task, though encumbered with some difficulties, may soon be
reduced within very narrow limits. For the deposits in the
north-eastern parts of Yorkshire are superior to the new red
sandstone, which runs in one continuous mass from the banks of
the Severn to the mouth of the Tees; and they are inferior to
the chalk which terminates in the bold escarpment of Flambo-
tough Head. Do they then admit of any natural subdivision
which will enable us to compare them with the several forma-
tions, between the new red sandstone and the chalk, which have
been described with so many excellent details by Mr. Cony-
beare ? That there is some difficulty in answering this questio
is obvious from the fact, that in the description of the district in
ee our best geological authorities are at variance among
themselves.
Mr. Smith identifies the alum-shale of the Yorkshire coast
with the Oxford clay ; and the coal formation of the moors and
the limestone of the vale of Pickering, with the calcareous grit
and oolite of the coral-rag formation. Mr. Greenough refers the
alum-shale to the lias, the sandstone and coal formation of the
moors to the great oolite, and the limestone of the vale of Pick-
ering to the coral-rag. Mr. Conybeare is inclined to identify
the formation of the moors with the inferior oolite, and the
limestone of the vale of Pickering with the great oolite. A part
of these discrepancies has undoubtedly arisen from the anoma-
lous character of the strata in question; for there is obviously
great risk of error in attempting to bring into the same class
distant deposits which are unconnected, and bear little resem-
blance to each other. Netwithstanding these difficulties, 1 am
disposed to think, that a careful examination of a very small
number of facts, in addition to those with which we are now
acquainted, would enable us to determine with certainty the
respective places in the series of English formations to which
the strata on the Yorkshire coast are to be referred. “
The whole country bordering on this part of the coast is natu-
rally divided into several distinct regions, each possessing a
distinct geological structure. 1. The low region extending
from the southern extremity of Holderness to Bridlington.
2. The chalk downs terminating in Flamborough Head.
3. The low argillaceous region constituting the vale of Picker-
ing. 4. The broken mountainous tract extending from the vale
of Pickering to the end of Huntclifl. 5. The low region stretch-
ing from the mouth of the Tees towards the central plains of
Yorkshire.

1826.] which appear on the Yorkshire Coast. 341

In describing the deposits which occupy, and give the charac-
ter to, these successive regions, I shall endeavour to avoid all
details which are not absolutely necessary to my present purpose ;
as my only object is to ascertain the relations of certain pheno-
mena which have already been elaborately and faithfully
described in a work to which I have before referred. On this
account, I shall notice the successive formations in the order in
which they are described in the “ Geological Survey of the
Yorkshire Coast,” beginning with the most superficial, and end-
ing with the lowest strata of the district.

Secr. 2.—Strata of Holderness.

" Nearly the whole of this first region is composed of diluvial

detritus. Some account was given of the deposit in a paper
(published in the Annals of Philosophy for July, 1825), in which
I endeavoured to ascertain its connexion with other similar
deposits in the neighbouring parts of England. Any further
notice of it in this place is unnecessary.

Tn so extensive a district, composed exclusively of materials
which are superior to the chalk, some traces of tertiary beds
might be expected to appear in the sections on the coast. But
no traces of them are seen in any part of the cliffs south of Brid-
lington. In some places, however, a very impure variety of coal
is occasionally cast up on the beach, which may, perhaps, be

derived from some inferior carbonaceous beds similar to those
which abound in many parts of the plastic clay formation.*

~ By the degradation of the coast immediately on the north side
of Bridlington Quay, a bed of green-sand, extending through a
distance of eight or ten yards, was laid bare at the base of the
cliff;+ It contained many incoherent bivalve shells, and very
much resembled some of the beds which are found in the higher

part of the sand-pits of Woolwich. I considered it an undoubted

roof of, at least, a partial existence of tertiary beds in that part
of England. With the crag of Suffolk, it ought not, I think, to
be confounded.

Mr. Smith, in his Geological Map of Yorkshire, mentions the
occurrence of crag shells and sand in the interior of Holderness.
I have not seen any of the deposits to which he refers, and am,
therefore, unable to determine whether they are to be classed
with the Suffolk crag, or with the shell-beds of the plastic clay
formation. Mr. Smith’s system of arrangement unfortunately

does not enable us to make the separation.

WARHLM 7
* These varieties of impure coal must not be confounded with specimens of pure pit
coal, which are occasionally found on the beach, having been wrecked or scattered on the
coast,
_ + Lhave been informed that this bed of green sand is now concealed by some works
constructed, in the year 182), fur the purpose of preventing the encroachments of the
sea,

842 Prof. Sedgwick on the Classification of the Strata [May,

Srcr. 3.—Chalk of Flamborough Head and the Wolds.*

The chalk undoubtedly forms the foundation on which rest all !

the beds described in the last section. All its characters are
exhibited in a succession of lofty and finely indented escarp-
ments which extend from Bridlington, round Flamborough Head,
to Speeton. It is, with few exceptions, more compact than the
corresponding beds in the southern parts of England ; and the
imbedded flint nodules are generally more compressed, often
putting on the appearance of large tabular masses, which are
striated parallel to the planes of stratification. These flints are
of an unusually pale colour, and exactly resemble specimens
derived from the chalk in several parts of France. In the chalk
marl (which here, as in other parts of England, exists near the
bottom of the formation), are many beds of a bright red colour,
which alternate with others where the colouring matter is less
abundant. This group gives a very singular character to the
lower portion of the cliff, especially near Speeton.+ ae

A striking phenomenon connected with this formation, and
not, I believe, noticed in any geological work, may be seen in
the lofty cliff about half way between Flamborough Head and
Speeton. The beds of chalk and flint are at once bent out of
their ordinary position, and twisted into a number of curves, the
flexures of which are as violent and irregular as those which
commonly occur in formations of greywacké. The cause which
produced this very singular irregularity must have acted par-
tially ; for in the remaining part of the cliff, the beds of chalk
and flint have their usual direction and inclination.

Notwithstanding the anomalies which are above stated, the
chalk formation of the Yorkshire coast agrees in all its general
characters with the same formation in other parts of England,
admits of the same subdivisions, and contains the same suite of
organic remains. Exclusively, therefore, of the fact of actual
continuity, the several parts of the formation just described,
must be considered, by every one who is capable of appreciating
physical evidence, to be contemporaneous with the several parts
of the same formation in the southern districts of our island.

Srocr. 4.—Vale of Pickering.
The whole of the low region stretching through the vale of

* For a detailed description of this formation, I must refer to the ‘¢ Geological Sur-
vey of the Yorkshire Coast,” (p. 46—55). Its superficial extent may be seen in any of
our geological maps.

+ The red beds in Hunstanton cliff on the coast of Norfolk (which I had the advan-
tage of examining last spring in the company of Dr. Fitton) do not so unequivocally
belong to the chalk formation, but rather seem to represent, in a very unusual form, the
Cambridge galt; for they exist under the chalk formation, and do not alternate with
any part of it; and they contain the peculiar fossils of the galt in great abundance, and

are seen to repose on the green and ferruginous sands (exactly resembling those at

Shanklin, in the Isle of Wight), which always haye their place below the galt.

a a

ES eS 2

1826.] which appear on the Yorkshire Coast. - 343

Pickering, and bounded bythe chalk downs on one side, and
by the hills of oolitic limestone on the other, is composed of one
great argillaceous deposit, which at the north end of Speeton
cliff is seen to rise immediately from under the formation
described in the preceding section. The junction on the coast
is in some measure obscured by a partial dislocation of the
strata’; but the relative position of the chalk and inferior clay
has been unequivocally proved by an actual boring in search of
coal conducted in the neighbourhood of Staxton, as well as by
an examination of several undisturbed sections in the neighbour-
hood of Knapton and Settrington. (See the “ Geological Survey
of the Yorkshire Coast,” p. 56—60.) From the dip of the oolitic
limestone on the north side of the vale, we may infer with perfect
confidence that it is inferior to the Pickering clay, though the
two formations are not seen in immediate contact on the coast—
a conclusion which is confirmed by the arrangement of the seve-
ral formations, on the south-east bank of the Derwent, below
Malton. Ifthen (as I shall endeavour to show in the next sec-
tion) the oolitic limestone of the Pickering hills be identical with
the middle oolite, or coral rag, of Mr. Conybeare’s series, it
follows that the clay of the vale of Pickering must represent one
= ey of the known formations between the coral rag and the
alk.

Since the publication of Dr. Fitton’s excellent paper in the
Annals of Philosophy for November, 1824, there is no longer any
doubt or difficulty respecting the true arrangement of the beds
on the south coast of our island, between the chalk and the
Purbeck limestone. All those who had previously written on
the subject had been led into occasional errors by sometimes
confounding the Shanklin-sand (lower green-sand or ferrugino-
gteen+sand of Mr. Webster) with the beds of green-sand which

ave their place between the chalk and the Cambridge galt; and
at other times by embodying the Shanklin-sand as one forma-
tion with the lower Hastings beds. Now that these errors are
corrected, the following arrangement of the deposits between the
chalk and the coral-rag oolite may be considered as completely
established.* 1, Chalk, 2. Green-sand. 3. Cambridge galt.

* Since the publication of the paper above-mentioned, some questions have arisen
respecting the appropriate names to be given to the several deposits between the chalk
and the Purbeck limestone. Though it is quite foreign to my present purpose to
inyolve my name in any part of the controversy, yet I cannot help expressing my opi-
__ nion that the term green-sand ought to be retained, and applied exclusively to the beds

between the galt and the chalk. ‘The term was, I believe, used with this limitation by
Mr. Smith; and it was used consistently in the same sense by Mr. Webster, in his
description of the Isle of Wight. A subsequent, and, it now appears, an erroneous
application of the same term to designate other beds below the galt, 1s no reason for aban-
doning a name which has been long received and is highly appropriate. Dr. Fitton
Was unquestionably the first who correctly separated the deposits immediately below the
galt; I have, therefore, thought myself bound to follow the name (Shanklin-sand)
Which he proposes for the highest of them, In a paper on the Isle of Wight (published

344 Prof. Sedgwick on the Classification of the Strata [May,

4y Shanklin sand (ferrugino-green-sand of Mr. Webster). The
three. preceding of marine origin, and very nearly related ‘to
each other. 5. Weald clay. 6. Hastings sands. ‘The two pre-
ceding, with a very peculiar suite of organic remains, chiefly of
freshwater origin. 7. Purbeck limestone: in zoological charac-
ters approaching the two preceding; but in mineralogical cha-
racter more nearly associated with No. 8. 8. Portland oolite,
9. Kimmeridge clay. 10. Coral-rag oolite. )
With what part of the preceding series shall we then identify
the clay of the vale of Pickering? To answer this question cor-
rectly, it is obviously necessary to determine the physical cha-
racters and the organic remains of the formation. Unfortunately
the sections on the coast, disguised by enormous accumulations
of diluvium, give us much less information than might have been
anticipated. I may, however, venture to assert, that the fossils
of the argillaceous cliff which succeeds the chalk are not identi-
cal with the suite of the Cambridge galt; and that some speci-
mens which I found 7 situ, and others derived from the same
locality, which I have seen in private collections, are identical
with a part of the fossils of the Kimmeridge clay in the neigh-
bourhood of Weymouth. The general agreement of the Kim-
meridge and Pickering clays is further confirmed by the near
agreement of their mineralogical characters, and by the beds of
bituminous shale which are subordinate to both of them.
Allowing, however, that a portion of the Pickering clay is the
true representative of the Kimmeridge clay, it may still be asked,
whether the upper part of it may not represent some of the other
beds between No. 1 and No.9 of the general series abovemen-
tioned. As far as regards the immediate vicinity of the coast,
i am disposed to answer the question in the negative, for the
following reasons: 1. There are, I believe, no traces of the
Portland and Purbeck beds north of the Humber.* 2, The
Weald clay and the Hastings sands seem to constitute a local
deposit confined to the south-eastern parts of England; and
being principally of freshwater origin, cannot in any way be
co-extensive with the marine formations which are above them

in the Annals of Philosophy for 1822), I made some remarks on Mr. Greenough’s
geological map, which I take this opportunity of correcting. At that time I was unac-
quainted with the coasts of Kent and Sussex, and confounded the Kentish rag (which I
only knew by description) with the green-sand rock of the Undercliff in the Isle of
Wight. I now think that on any geological map of an ordinary size, it would not be
expedient to subdivide the colours further than has been done already ; and that the
green-sand, the Cambridge galt, and the Shanklin sands, might be conveniently repre-
sented by one colour with a designation applying to the whole group. This appears to
have been very nearly the system of Mr. Greenough.

* Tf this assertion be true, it by no means follows that the same formations are want-
ing on the west side of the wolds of Lincolnshire. A correct description of the beds
between the chalk and great oolite in that county is at present a desideratum which, we
may hope, will be soon supplied by some of the members of the philosophical societies in
the north of England.

—“—-_

1826.] ©» which appear on the Yorkshire Coust. | 346

and below them. It is, therefore, @ priori, improbable that they
should reappear on the Yorkshire coast. 3. In the section visi-
ble:in the cliff near Speeton (and also at Knapton, as appears by
the “ Geological Survey of the Yorkshire Coast,” p. 58), the
chalk marl rests immediately on the Pickering clay without any
trace of the Shanklin-sand, or of the green-sand. It is, there-
fore, probable, that the intervening galt has also disappeared.*
I, therefore, conclude, on a review of the best evidence with
which I am acquainted, that the whole of the Pickering clay on
the coast is to be identified with the Kimmeridge clay; and
that all the formations, from No. 2 to No.8 inclusive, are want-
ing in the Yorkshire section.

\. Suer. 5:—Oolitic Limestone, &c. of the Vale of Pickering.

The high broken tract of country, extending from the Vale of
Pickering through the north-eastern moorlands of Yorkshire to
the extremity of Huntcliff, has already been considered as one
physical region. It will, however, be convenient to divide the
strata which successively present themselves in this region into
three distinct groups or formations. 1. A formation of oolitic
limestone and calcareous grit. 2. A coal formation. 3.A great
argillaceous deposit (alum-shale or lias), immediately inferior to
the two preceding, which occupies a considerable portion of the
cliff between the Peak of Robin Hood’s Bay and the village of
Saltburn, and forms the base of the hills which overlook the

lain of Cleveland. A short account of these groups will form
the subject of the three following sections. |

The calcareous grit, constituting the lower portion of the first
group, is finely exposed in the promontory of Filey Bridge, and
a little further to the west is surmounted by beds of oolitic lime-
stone. The whole group is thence prolonged about thirty miles,
in a direction nearly due west, to the escarpment which over-
hangs the plains of Thirsk. The formation afterwards ranges in
a south-easterly direction to Malton, where it crosses to the left
bank of the Derwent, and for some way runs nearly parallel to
the chalk downs. Farther to the south it disappears for many
miles under the chalk ; but it afterwards reappears (according to
the geological map of Mr. Smith) at Newbald, and is thence
prolonged, in a direction parallel to the general bearing of the
other strata, to the north bank of the Humber.

* From the geological map of Mr, Greenough, as well as from Mr. Smith’s geologi-
eal map of Yorkshire, we might suppose that some of the sand beds belonging to the
group immediately inferior to the chalk, extended without interruption at the hase of
Yorkshire wolds. How far the delineation is hypothetical, I am not prepared to say;
but I saw no trace of the group in question, and it seems to have been unknown to the
authors of the ‘Survey of the Yorkshire Coast.’’ In the geological map of Yorkshire,
the clay of the vale of Pickering is called the Oaktree-clay, a term which conveys no
definite information ; for in Mr. Smith’s system, the Weald clay and the Kimmeridge
clay are unfortunately confounded under the common name of Oaktree-clay.

346 Prof. Sedgwick on the Classification of the Strata [Mavy,

» Bya comparison of the dip and direction of the several parts
of the formation just described it appears, that from Filey
Bridge to Malton, the beds of oolite form a kind of basin which
supports the argillaceous deposit described in the preceding
section. For many of the details connected with the natural
history. of this formation, I must however refer the reader to the
“ Geological Survey of the Yorkshire Coast,” p.61—69. . The
outlier of Scarborough Castle Hill, another out-Her, which forms
the crest of the hill north-east of Hackness, and a third out-lier
(not marked in Smith’s geological map of Yorkshire) crowning
the hill immediately west of Hackness, afford the best possible
opportunities for studying the characters of the oolitic forma-
tion and its relation to the inferior beds. The same remark may
be applied to the fine natural section of Filey Bridge, and to
‘various quarries in the course of the river Derwent where it cuts
its way through the oolite into the vale of Pickering. An
examination of these localities led me to conclude, without
hesitation, that the oolite of this part of Yorkshire was in every
respect identical with the middle oolite or coral-rag formation ;
an opinion which was confirmed by an examination of several
quarries near Kirkby Moorside during the following year. As,
however, this conclusion is of importance, and has been dis-
puted, 1 think it expedient briefly to state the evidence on
which it is founded.* For this purpose, it will be necessary to
determine the true characters of the middle oolite formation in
those localities where it is best exhibited. eerie

Section, of the Coral-rag Oolite exposed in the Cliffs near
Weymouth.

Near Weymouth there are many highly instructive sections,
exhibiting all the three formations of oolite, and the intervening
clays in their natural order ; and in the cliff extending from the
jetty to the ruined castle, the successive beds of the coral rag
formation (beginning with the lowest and ending with the
highest) are exposed in an unbroken natural section. The fol-
lowing details connected with this section are extracted from
memoranda made on the spot in the year 1820.

No.1. A system of beds near the jetty resting immediately
on the Oxford clay.+ They are composed of a variety of calc+
grit, very harsh and meagre to the touch ; and many of them are
almost made up of irregular stems branching out and intersect-
ing each other in every direction. Heaps of dried branches ‘of
wood mixed with blown sand, and then cemented into one mass,

* It is, perhaps, unnecessary to inform the reader that Mr. Greenough, Professor
Buckland, and Mr. Smith, have all, in their published works, identified the Pickering
oolite with the coral rag formation.

+ The Oxford clay near Weymouth is highly characteristic, ‘and contains an incredi4
ble number of the gryphaa dilatatas sheaths . Aer

1826.] which appear on the Yorkshire Coast. 347

would in some measure approach to the configuration of these
‘singular beds. The stems very seldom exhibit any indications
of organic structure, but I think that some of them must have
originated in the presence of alcyonia, or of other genera of the
lower class of zoophytes. ; sing Sgt

No, 2. Many thin beds of yellow sand and sandstone, very
much resembling the sands of the inferior oolite.

‘No. 3. Strong beds of calcareous grit in structure like No. 1,
but more ferruginous, and separated into prismatic: vertical
masses by a double system of fissures. The three preceding
groups extend from the jetty to the first headland.
~ No. 4. Blue argillaceous beds alternating with hard compact
beds which lose the character of sandstone, and have a nearly
even fracture.

No. 5. Beds of yellow sand resembling No. 2. Near the top
-are beds of calcareous grit with argillaceous partings, im struc-
ture resembling the beds of Nos. 1 and 3. ;

No. 6. Many beds of pure oolite with argillaceous partings,
alternating with other shelly oolitic beds, somewhat resembling
forest-marble. In some of these beds, the oolitic particles were
associated with a variety of marl, and were not coherent.

No.7. Thin beds of oolitic marl containing innumerable spe-
cimens of a small echinus (Clypeus clunicularis), casts of mela-
niea,&e.

No.8. A group of beds of impure sandy oolite. It contains,
along with various fossils of the preceding groups, a few speci-
mens of the ostrea deltoidea. re |

No. 9. A: large group, in the lowest portion of which are
masses of coral rag containing the ramose madrepore (caryo-
phyllia), and other fossils of Steeple Ashton, mixed with innu-
merable fragments of the trigonia clavellata. In the higher
portion of this group are many meagre sandy beds nearly
resembling the calcareous grit of some of the inferior groups of
this section; containing, however, more calcareous matter, and
a much finer suite of organic remains.

sh 10. Kimmeridge clay, with large beds of the ostrea del-
toidea.

No. 11. Beds of ferruginous impure calcareous grit, partially
oolitic, and alternating with beds of red and green-sand, and
blue clay containing the ostrea deltoidea.*

No. 12. The remaining portion of the cliff on the way towards
Portland ferry is composed of Kimmeridge clay, containing the
most characteristic fossils of that formation.

* This very remarkable group is seen in the part of the cliff immediately under the
ruined castle. ‘The whole thickness of the groups from No. I to No, 9 inclusive,’ must
be considerably greater than the thickness of the same formation near Oxford, which is
estimated by Mr. Conybeare at something less than 200 feet (p. 185), In some places
in Yorkshire, the thickness of the calcareous grit, without the oolite, has been estimated
at 200 feet,—-(‘* Survey of the Yorkshire Coast,” p. 77.)

348 Prof. Sedgwick on the Classification of the Strata [Mavy,

Any person who had frequent opportunities of access to this
art of the coast might select a fine suite of organic remains
illustrating the natural history of the formation. The series
-which fell under my own notice must, of course, be very imper-
fect ; and I only give it in this place in the hope of conveying
some notion of the manner in which the fossils are grouped in
the several parts of the section just described.

The fossils of the five lowest groups (No. 1 to No. 5) were as
follows :#—1. Ammonites. 2. Nautilites. Both these were
rare, and generally in the form of fragments. 3. Belemnites
——. 4. Gryphea dilatata, confined to the lowest group
No. 1. 5. Ostrea, (a) a large flat species, (b) a small convex
species, (c) ostrea Marshit . 6. Trigonia clavellata, 7. Pec-
ten, two or three species ; one small species with undulating
strie is very abundant. 8. Pinna lanceolata.(?) 9. Many casts
of a shell resembling a mya are found in all parts of the form-
ation. ;

The fossils of the central portion of the formation including
Nos. 6, 7, 8, of the general section were as follows: a

1. Ostzea, (a) small convex species ; (6) de/toidea, found in the
_ group No. 8. 2. Pecten, the small species abovementioned.

3. Perna aviculoides. 4. Many casts of a mya(?). 5. Many
fragments of various bivalves 6. Melania, (a) Headingto-
niensis, (b) striata, associated with various casts of univalves.
7. Echinus, clypeus clunicularis,

Some species of fossils of the group No. 9 are in infinite
abundance. Whole beds are entirely made up of crystalline
fragments of the tvigonia clavellata and other characteristic
shells. This association of petrified shells and corals with inco-
herent ferruginous marly beds gives rise to a variety of rubbly
limestone, provincially called coral-rag, a term now generally
adopted by English geologists. The series exhibited in this
group is as follows:—l. Ostrea, (a) gregaria, (b) solitaria,
(c) Marshii,? (d) del/toidea. 2. Yrizonia, (a) clavellata,
(6) elongata (?), (c) costata. 3. Pecten, the small species with
undulating strie. 4. Pinna, (a) lanceolata, (b) granulata.
5. Perna, (a) aviculoides, (b) a flat species of a trapezoidal form.
6. Terebratula inconstans. 7. Melania, (a) Headingtoniensis,
(6) striata. 8. Turbo muricatus. 9. Trochus reticulatus.
10. Turritella‘muricata, 11. Echinus (a) spines and fragments
of cidaris papillata, (b) clypeus clunicularis 12. A few
fragments of the ramose madrepore (caryophyllia), and other
coralline bodies resembling those which abound in the well-
known quarries of Steeple Ashton, &c. &c. Of the preceding
list, No. 1 (Ostrea deltoidea), No. 3, No. 4 (Pinna granulata),

* The names of the several species of testacea are adopted from Sowerby’s Mineral
Conchology, except where the contrary is expressed, c

1826.], . which appear on the Yorkshire Coast. = 349

No. 6, and No. 9, are also found near Weymouth in the next.
superior formation of Kimmeridge clay.

The group(No. 1] of the Weymouth section) is within the limits
of the Kimmeridge clay. The ferruginous beds subordinate to this
group contain several fossils, among which are; 1. Ostrea deltoi-
dea, and another large flat species. 2. Lima proboscidea. 3. Pec-
ten, the small species above-mentioned. 4. Mytilus pectinatus.
5. Casts of mya(?). 6. Many irregular branching stems resem-
bling those in the lower part of the formation. In this bed the
stems are frequently hollow, and are mineralized by oxide of
iron. By way of conclusion to this enumeration, we ma
remark; 1. That some fossils are common to the Oxford clay,
and the lower part of the coral-rag formation. 2. That the upper
part of the coral rag formation alternates with the Kimmeridge
clay, and that several fossils are common to the two formations.
3. That. several fossils (e. g. one or two species of ostrea, trigo-
nia clavellata, belemnites, pecten (the small species), casts of
mya (?), &c. &c.) are common to all the beds of the section
above described.

_In the cliffs between Weymouth and the Isle of Purbeck, also
in many places between Weymouth and Abbotsbury, there are
good sections of the coral-rag ; and with considerable changes
in the character of individual beds, there is, in all the localities,
a general agreement in the arrangement of the groups, and an
entire coincidence in the suites of the organic remains. In
every section we find a group of calcareous grit sand and sand-
stone at the bottom, beds of oolitic limestone in the middle, and
beds of comminuted shells, coral rag, &c. at the top of the
formation. |

Coral Rag Formation near Steeple Ashton, &c.

_ The formation is exposed near Steeple Ashton in a succession
of quarries ; but the denudations are not comparable to those
near Weymouth. They enable us, however, to determine that
the general arrangement of the groups is the same with that
above described. Over the Oxford clay are beds of sand and
calcareous grit ; these are succeeded. by beds cf coarse oolite
(pisolite of Smith); and the oolite is surmounted by beds of
ragstone, containing innumerable stems of corals, and a suite of
organic remains nearly identical with the Weymouth series,

ear Calne, in Wiltshire, the denudations are imperfect, but
the general arrangement of the formation appears to agree with
that which is above stated. In that neighbourhood some of the
beds are remarkably modified, though not so much as to destroy
the leading characters of the deposit. .For example, in some of
the escarpments near Bow-wood Park, the calcareous matter is
almost wanting, and the calcareous grit passes into a very ferru-

350 Prof. Sedewick on the Classification of the Strata [May,

ginous sand, and a sandstone which is occasionally so coarse as
to approach a conglomerate. The oolite at Abbotsbury and
some other places is hard and indestructible; more generally it
is soft, and liable to decomposition on exposure. The oolitic
particles in their size, form, and arrangement, are not so regular

“as in the great oolite and the Portland stone. Indeed some of
these characters are so general that a person well acquainted
with the English strata would, in most cases, be able to identify
mere hand specimens of the coral-rag oolite. Lastly, the upper
beds of the formation are sometimes highly ferruginous, and
pass, when the fossils are not abundant, into beds nearly resem-
bling those which form the bottom group ; this is the case near
Abbotsbury.

Formation of Coral-rag near Oxford.

Sufficiently minute details respecting this part of the formation.
are given by Conybeare,* in the “ Outlines of the Geology of
England ;” and.1 should have thought. it unnecessary to do
more than refer to it, had not the arrangement of the groups
seemed to contradict that which is given above. It is stated
(p. 186), that near Oxford, the calcareo-siliceous grit forms the
lowest, the coral rag the middle, and the oolitic freestone the
upper part of the deposit. This anomalous arrangement appears
to admit of the following explanation. Near Weymouth, and in
other.localities, shelly beds (exactly resembling the coral rag of
the top group of the general section above given) are often asso-
ciated with the middle part of the formation containing the
oolite. Where these beds of broken shells, &c. become of con-
siderable thickness, they constitute a formation of coral rag
alternating with, or inferior to, the oolitic freestone. May not,
therefore, the coral rag and superincumbent freestone of Head-
ington Hill together represent the central group of the Wey-
mouth and Steeple Ashton sections ? The conjecture seems to be
confirmed by the appearance of the beds in Headington quarries.
In that place the top freestone supports the Kimmeridge clay ;
and the separation between the two is as well defined as a geo-
metric Jine. Now the instantaneous passage from one formation
to another frequently indicates the absence of certain beds or
deposits.| May not then the upper part of the Weymouth
section be wanting near Oxford? The supposition seems more
probable than the inversion of what (upon evidence already
stated) appears to be the common arrangement of the subordinate

groups.

* < Outlines of the Geology of England,” &c. p. 185—193. In this part of the
work, Mr. Conybeare assumes the deposit near Oxford as the type of the formation.

+ The converse of this rule is, I think, true. When a number of deposits succeed
each other in a fixed order, and the highest beds of one deposit alternate with the lowest
beds of the next superior ; the alternation indicates the perfect development of the series.

1826.] © which appear on the Yorkshire Coast. © + 35)

- Having thus endeavoured to fix the general characters Of the
coral rag formation, we may now proceed to examine the nature
of the oolitic deposit on the Yorkshire coast and in the vale of
Pickering. The lower part of this deposit consists principally
of beds of calcareous grit and sandstone, in mineralogical struc-
ture, perfectly identical with the lowest groups of some of the
sections of the coral rag described above. At Filey Bridge,
Scarborough Castle Hill, and other localities, we meet with beds
ageregated into irregular branching and imperfectly cylindrical
masses, exactly resembling those at Weymouth.* Associated
with the same beds are many fossils both in their state of pre-
servation and in their species identical with the fossils in the
bottom group of the Weymouth section. Out of these may be
enumerated a large flat oyster, ostrea gregaria, ostrea Marshii (?),
gryphea dilatata, trigonia clavellata, pecten (the small species
which abounds at Weymouth), and the small echinus (clypeus
clunicularis), &c. Kc.

' In every place where the formation is well exhibited, there is,
immediately overthe calcareous grit, a group of beds of ooliticlime-
stone more or less mixed with imperfectly coherent beds containing
comminuted fragments of the ostrea gregaria, trigonia clavellata,
perna aviculoides, and various other fossils. These beds in mine-
ralogical character are perfectly identical with the coral-rag
oolite, and present examples of all its varieties.. For very com-
plete details respecting the two preceding groups, I must refer
to the “ Survey of the Yorkshire Coast,” p. 61—79.

The sections near the coast do not in general exhibit any
important deposit superior to the preceding group. Near the
village of Ayton, there is, however, a fine formation of coral-rag
over the oolite. The order of the beds is as follows, beginning
with the lowest. 1. Dark-brown shelly beds resembling those
associated, at Filey Bridge, with the top beds of the calc-grit,
and containing the same fossils. 2. Oolitic freestone, many
blocks with imbedded fragments of the perna aviculoides.
3. Marl beds with numerous casts of the melania striata, ’sur-
mounted by coral rag containing many crystalline stems of
madrepores, spines of echinites of the division Cidaris, Kc. &c.
This order appeared to be identical with that which is exhibited
in the Steeple Ashton section. ~

In the preceding lists, those species only are enumerated
which fell under my own observation, and which may be consi-
dered of ordinary occurrence.} The result of the whole exami-

_™ Some of the branching stems at Filey Bridge and Scarborough exhibit distinct
traces of organic structure.

“+ Ihave endeayoured, from the only materials in my possession, to convey some
notion of the distribution of the organic remains through the several parts of the forma-
tion. No one, during a hasty excursion along the coast, has the power of collecting a
good suite of fossils. Fine specimens may sometimes be procured from dealers; but
these persons collect from all parts of the coast, and sell the specimens without any cor.

352 Prof. Sedgwick on the Classification of the'Sirata [May;

nation seems to prove, that in the structure of the component
beds, in the arrangement of the groups, in their order of super-
position, and in the suites of organic remains, there is an almost
perfect coincidence between the Yorkshire oolite and the coral
rag formation in the south-western parts of our island, Indeed
the coincidence is much more perfect than one commonly disco-
vers in comparing the remote parts of one continuous deposit.*

Sect. 6.—Coal Formation of the Moorlands, §e.

With very limited exceptions, the whole cliff extending from
the neighbourhood of Filey Bridge to the eastern end of Robin
Hood’s Bay, and the higher portions of the cliff between Robin
Hood’s Bay and the extremity of Huntcliff, are composed of beds
of shale, sandstone, ironstone, &c. which in their individual cha-
racter, as well as in their mode of grouping, very nearly resemble
the great coal formations of our island. Very elaborate details,
connected with the natural history of these beds, their extent,
and their range through the interior of the district, are given in
the “ Geological Survey of the Yorkshire Coast,” p. 79—127.

The lowest beds of the group described in the preceding sec-
tion are succeeded, in the cliffs north of Filey Bridge, and also
at Scarborough Castle Hill, by a great bed of shale, which, on.
first visiting the coast, I considered as the representative of the
Oxford-clay. It is, however, in many places subdivided by
several beds of sandstone ; and in some places the sandstone so
far predominates as completely to alter the character of the
deposit, which is too much interlaced with the inferior beds to be |
properly separated from them.+ In short, like the shale of the

rect account of the localities. Collections formed in this way tend rather to mislead than
to assist in the classification of the successive deposits. In several private collections are
many beautiful specimens from the oolite near Malton. Some of these are, perhaps,
peculiar to the locality, and several of them are not characteristic of the formation. I
remarked among them two beautiful Echinites, of the division Cidaris, Melania Hea-
dingtoniensis, and Melania striata, Lima proboscidea, Plagiostoma rigidum, and
many other species which abound in the coral-rag of Wiltshire, Dorsetshire, &c. The
reader may select a good list of the fossils of the oolite from the plates and descriptions
affixed by Messrs, Young and Bird to the ‘‘ Survey of the Yorkshire Coast.””

* Mr. Conybeare thinks it probable that the Yorkshire oolite is the prolongation of
the great oolite, which may be traced in one continuous escarpment to the south bank of
the Humber; and the map prefixed to the ‘* Outlines of the Geology of England,”’ is
coloured on this supposition. The great oolitein Lincolnshire (at least as far as I have
examined it) preserves the usual characters, which it exhibits in all parts of its range
from the coast of Dorsetshire; and it seems incredible that this great deposit should in
the remaining part of its range, through a part of Yorkshire, not only lose these charac-
ters, but assume those which belong to a distinct formation. Had I been aware, when
I visited the coast, that any question would ever arise respecting the true place of the
Yorkshire oolite, I should have visited the formation which extends from Newbald to
the north bank of the Humber. A careful comparison of this formation with the oolite
of the Vale of Pickering, and with the oolitic terrace of Lincolnshire, would probably
settle the question, if the evidence before us be not already considered sufficient for that

uTpose.
. + AtFiley Bridge, the great bed of shale makes a well-defined boundary between the

1826.]) » which appear on the Yorkshire Coast. — 853

great coal measures, it is not a distinct deposit, but it is 2 sub-
ordinate member of a complex formation.

These beds.of shale and sandstone are succeeded (in the cliff
between Guisthorpe and White-nab to thesouth of Scarborough ;
and. also in the cliff extending from the north shore of Scarbo-
rough to Cloughton wyke), by a deposit principally composed of
beds of sandstone; many of which in their composition and mode
of arrangement could not, by the most practised eye, be distin-
guished from the beds of gritstone which form so considerable a
part of the coal formation on the coast of Northumberland. Beds
and nodules of ironstone abound in some of the sandstone beds
of this series : nodules of ironstone also occur in beds of shale,
which alternate with the sandstone. Carbonaceous matter,
obviously of vegetable origin, is found associated both with the
sandstone and the ironstone ; and near Guisthorpe, in the higher

art of the series, this matter is aggregated in one or two dis-
tinct beds ; which are, however, too impure and inconsiderable
to be of any value, and are only interesting as affording the first
indications of coal in the district. __

Notwithstanding the analogies between this system of beds
and the true coal measures, a careful examination of many
of the extensive sections on the coast would enable us to sepa-
rate the formations from each other. Thus, near Cayton Mill
_ (about half way between Filey Bridge and Scarborough), a thick
bed of oolitic calcareous grit is interstratified with the sandstone ;
and further north, near White-nab, some shelly beds associated
with the sandstone and ironstone, bear na resemblance to any
part of the true coal measures. The separation is made still
more complete by suites of organic remains, found in various
places on the coast, which are identical, not with the older

ossils of the great coal formation, but with the fossils common
to some of our deposits of oolitic limestone.

The beds of sandstone, shale, and ironstone, which occupy the
cliffs for three or four miles to the north of Scarborough, are at
Cloughton-wyke succeeded by some beds of meagre greye
coloured calcareous grit, and of hard and nearly compact bluish
limestone. These beds, although they are in different places”
considerably modified both in their texture and arrangement,
have been traced (by the authors of the “ Survey of the York-
shire Coast,”) through many parts of the interior to the western
extremity of the district. Near Cloughton-wyke they contain
many obscure traces of organic remains; but make no great
feature among the other rocks, and might easily escape notice,
were it not for the quantity of stalactitic incrustation which

coral rag and the inferior formation; but in other places where the shale is interlaced
with, and almost replaced by sandstone, the same boundary line becomes ill defined
and almost arbitrary.

New Series, vou, xt. 2A

354 Prof. Sedgwick on the Classification of the Strata [MAv¥}

marks their passage through the cliff. They are altogether not
more than fifteen or twenty feet thick, and in other places are,
perhaps, considerably less; but they require some notice from
their peculiar mineralogical character, and from their continuity.
‘They are, however, chiefly interesting from the fact of their
forming a separation between the productive and unproductive
portion of the peculiar coal formation to which they are subordi-
nate. Traces of bituminous shale may (as has been: stated
above) be found in certain parts of the formation above these
beds of limestone, but no where of sufficient purity and thick-
ness to be of any value.

From Cloughton Wyke to the eastern end of Robin Hood’s
Bay, the whole coast is composed of alternating beds of sande
stone and shale ; the greater part of which are, in composition
and mode of arrangement, nearly identical with the beds of the
great coal formation which are exposed on the coasts of Cumber-
land and Northumberland. _ This fact is of importance, and
should teach us great caution in identifying distant deposits
without first studying every fact connected with their natural
history and relations. Almost all the higher parts of the coast,
from Robin Hood’s Bay to Saltburn, where the cliff terminates
in the sandy plain of Redcar, are composed of the lower mem-
bers of the series resting on the alum-shale ; and the same remark
may be applied to the structure of the hills which overhang the
plain of Cleveland. ‘The sandstone is extremely variable in its
colour andstructure. It is often iron-shot, and sometimes con-
tains balls and irregular concretionary beds of a variety of clay
ironstone. We frequently find in it traces of carbonized vege-
table matter, and in some places it contains thin veins and seams
of a beautiful coal approaching the state of anthracite. Many
of the beds, especially in the lower part of the series, are exten-
sively quarried, and form an excellent strong material for the
construction of piers, and for other architectural purposes.

In the sections along the coast, there appears a very peculiar
coarse sandstone, provincially called dogger, at the bottom of the
whole formation, and resting immediately on the alum-shale.
This dogger in some places appears as a single bed; in other
places it 1s subdivided into several well-defined beds. Generally
it is highly ferruginous, and often of a dingy red or ochreous
colour: in these cases it is frequently split into distinct blocks
by cross fissures, which are coated over with thin ferruginous
lamina, and are filled with ochreous clay. Rarely it isof a green-
ish colour, and then resembles some of the ferruginous sands
which have their place under the chalk; not unfrequently it
becomes so coarse as almost to pass into a conglomerate form.
Most of it efferyesces with acids, and it is associated with some

1826.) ‘which appear onthe Yorkshire Coast. 355

impure calcareous concretions which abound with organic
remains.*

The shale in this part of the coal formation not only alternates
with the beds of sandstone, but is mixed with them in every pos-
sible proportion, and often passes into them, and entirely replaces
them. This singular irregularity may be seen in almost eve
section along the coast, especially in the cliffs south of Whitby.
In such circumstances the shale must necessarily be variable in
its composition. Jt sometimes contains balls and nodules of
clay ironstone ; in some places it becomes bituminous, and con-
tains thin beds of pure coal. The only beds, however, of suffi-
cient thickness and purity to be used, occur near the top and
bottom of the series. The higher beds were formerly wrought
on the north side of Cloughton Wyke; and beds in the same
geological position (i.e. a few yards below the limestone of
Cloughton Wyke) have been wrought in several places in the
interior of the country. This fact proves that the beds of coal
and bituminous shale are not mere local deposits confined to
particular troughs or basins. They are interstratified with the
other beds, partake of their irregularities, and range with them
from the coast to the western limits of the district.+

In the year 1821 a work was commenced in one of the lowest
beds at a part of the coast (called Brandy Hole) between Robin
Hood’s Bay and Whitby. The section exhibited in the cliff was
as follows: 1. Alum-shale at the base of the cliff. 2. Ferrugi-
nous coarse grit (dogger). 3. Alternations of shale and grit 30
or 40 feet. 4. Thick beds of strong coarse sandstone.—Fine
specimens of pit-coal had been extracted from one of the shale
beds subordinate to No.3. Similar works in the lower coal beds
had been attempted in some of the neighbouring parts of the coast 5
but I believe they have never been carried on in any part of the
interior of the district where the beds are less accessible, and
under such circumstances too thin to pay for working.

Such are the leading characters of the great deposit which, on
the coast of Yorkshire, is interposed between the alum-shale
and the calcareous grit of the coral-rag oolite. As a mere
matter of convenience, the upper and lower portions may admit
of a separate description ; but the whole is so intimately linked
together that it must be regarded as one formation, to which
there is ssenade strictly analogous among the beds of the same
age in the south of England.

_* A small quantity of galena was found, by the authors of the ¢‘ Survey of the
Yorkshire Coast,” in some slender veins or crevices in the dogger near Whitby (see p.

124
: It is stated in the ‘¢ Survey of the Yorkshire Coast,” (p. 118) that the best seams
which have been wrought are about seventeen inches thick, and the worst ubout six.
They are very liable to vary, and are often mixed with bituminoys shale ; but in favours
able i 1, Ag bose a very bright pure bituminous coal.
t The whole thickness of the formation is very considerable, but appears to vary in
2a2

i ‘
386 Prof. Sedgwick on the Classification of the Strata [May;"

An examination of the vegetable fossils of the district makes’
the analogy between the deposit just described, and the great
coal formations of England still more complete. Unfortunately
I am possessed of hardly one of these fossils, and can, therefore,
only speak of them in general terms, without entering on any
specific comparison of them with the similar spoils derived from
our great coal fields. The most remarkable of these fossils may
be divided into the following orders. 1. Ferns. Many species
are found in the bituminous shale ; beautiful specimens are also
sometimes met with in the sandstone beds. A few species are.
figured in the “ Survey of the Yorkshire Coast.” (Pl. 2,: figs.
4, 5, and PI.3, figs. 1, 2.) 2. Arundinaceous. plants. ,Some,
beautiful upright stems traverse a sandstone bed which overlies
one of the lower coal seams near Whitby. 3. Stems surrounded
with verrucate impressions, for the attachment of leaves, gene-
rally disposed in a quincunx order. Of these, there are many
varieties: two are tigured in the “ Survey of the Yorkshire
Coast,” Pl. 3, figs. 4, 5.—The condition of these fossils is pre-
cisely similar to that of those numerous fossils belonging to
analogous orders of the vegetable kingdom in our great coal
deposits. On the contrary, there is hardly any thing resemblin
them in the beds associated with the oolitic series in the sout
of England.

The organic remains of testaceous.animals found in this dis-
trict do, however, form a link between the Yorkshire beds and
the general oolitic series. It is well observed by the authors of
the “ Survey of the Yorkshire Coast,” that these remains much
more nearly resemble the fossils of the Pickering oolite than
those of the alum-shale. They are very irregularly distributed,
in many places entirely wanting, and in general only abundant
in those beds where an unusual quantity of calcareous matter is
present. In a hasty passage along the coast, [ was able to
detach very few characteristic specimens. The following imper-
fect notices respecting the grouping of the fossils are all which
I have it in my power to offer from personal observation. 1, In
some beds of grit under the great shale bed of Scarborough
Castle Hill were, beds of the grypha dilatata, ostrea Marshii (*),
perna aviculoides, fragments of a pinna, a deeply sulcated tere-
bratula, serpule, &c. 2. Some calcareous concretions said to be.
derived from theshale beds north of Filey Bridge, contained belem-
nites, ammonites sublevis, and fragments of other ammonites, avicula
(inequivalvis?). 3.Insome beds of sandstone and coarse oolitic cal-
careous grit near Cayton mill (between Filey Bridge and Scarbo-
different parts of its range. A section described by Messrs. Young and Bird (p. 115),
neither reaches the top nor the bottom of the formation, yet passes through beds, the
united thickness of which is about 500 feet. Another section (determined by boring)
had been proved to a depth of 328 feet below the Cloughton Wyke limestone, without

reaching the alum-shale. The greatest thickness of the whole formation is perhaps not .
less than 700 or 800 feet,

1826.) ’ which appear on the Yorkshire Coast. 357

rough) were fragments of a small madrepore, fragments of shells,
serpule, a small ostrea, traces of trigonia clavellata, fragments of
pernaaviculoides, &c. 4. At White-nab, south of Scarborough,
are some beds which contain many fossils, among which were

remarked, perna aviculoides, trigonia clavellata (2), avicula, frag-
ments of a modiola, &c. &c. 5. Among the beds associated
with the limestone of Cloughton Wyke were traces of a caryo-
-phyllia, resembling the great fossil of the coral rag, traces ofa
trigonia, many casts of a mya (2), &c. 6. Among the calcareous
nodules derived from the shale beds near the bottom of the
formation east of Robin Hood’s Bay, I remarked fragments of
ammonites, a pecten, avicula (costata?), mya (?). Near the same
place were beds of small oysters ; and in the coarse beds (dogger)
at the bottom of the formation were belemnites, and some other
obscure fossils in calcareous concretions ; and a /rigonia, which
has sometimes been erroneously named clavellata.

‘These short notices appear to bear out the observations which
were made above. Unfortunately I have no opportunity of veri-
fying them ; but imperfect as they are, they may convey some
general notion of the manner in which the fossils are grouped in
this interesting but anomalous formation.*

Sect. 7.—Alum-shale.

This immensely thick deposit, chiefly composed of slate clay
in different states of induration, begins to rise from beneath the
coarse sandstone near the eastern extremity of Robin Hood’s
Bay. After ascending with great regularity for a few hundred
feet, it is interrupted at the Peak by a remarkable dislocation
_which, on the south-east side of its range through the strata, has
produced a subsidence of at least 300 feet, and brought the
upper and middle beds of the formation into immediate contact.
.. Atthe village of Robin Hood’s Bay, the several beds are, by a
northern dip, brought down towards the beach; and near Hawsker

Bottoms, the highest part of the formation appears once again
at the base of the cliff. From thence, in following the line of
coast, the strata are observed to make some considerable undu-
lations ; but the alum-shale is seen at difierent elevations in
every part of the cliff as far as the south side of the entrance of
Whitby Harbour. There the strata are interrupted by a faulé
which ranges up the valley of the Esk, and produces such a
- down-cast on the north side, that the alum-shale is thrown below
the level of the beach.+ Near Sandsend it again rises, and in

* Some excellent collections of fossils which have been formed by persons resident on

. the coast, lose a great part of their yalue from the want of more precise information
* respecting the localities from which the specimens are derived,

'» ++ Similar indications of great faults, ranging through our secondary strata in the

. direction of the principal valleys by which they are intersected, are by no means of rare

“oceurrence. 1 have observed traces of such faults in almost every great valley, which

cuts through the magnesian limestone in its range from Nottingham to the mouth of the

858 Prof. Sedgwick on the Classification of the Strata [Max,

the remaining part of the coast as far as Saltburn, it forms ‘a
“succession of magnificent escarpments, the greatest number of

which are, however, crowned by the lowest beds of the superior
formation. Lastly, after being concealed for three or four miles

by a low cliff of blown sand, it reappears in the reef which runs
out into the sea near Redcar. i

It would, perhaps, be impossible to give correctly the range
of the western boundary of the alum-shale through the interior
of the district. From its appearance at Redcar, as well as in the
quarries opened in the trap dyke near Langbargh, it is evident
that the line passes through the plain at some distance to the
‘west of the great escarpment of the Cleveland hills. In every
part of this escarpment, the shale rises toa great elevation ; and

by its gradual dip towards the south-east is at length carried
‘under the north-western skirt of the Hambleton hills, and disap-
pears altogether, the western boundary being probably buried
under the diluvium of the plain.

The greatest part of the Yorkshire moorlands north of the ool-
‘ite hills is composed of the different members of the coal forma-
tion described in the preceding section.* The alum-shale is,
however, laid bare in the deep valley of the Esk, and in some
other similar situations, at a considerable distance from the coast.

For an admirable detailed account of this formation, the
reader may consult the “Survey of the Yorkshire Coast,” p.
127—160. A very short account of it will be sufficient for my
present purpose. ‘The beds which appear on the coast may be
conveniently divided into the following groups, beginning with
the highest.

(1.) A group, nearly 250 feet thick, composed as follows:
—1. Soft glossy unctuous slate clay, 100 feet thick, abound-
ing with pyritous nodules, and extremely liable to spon-
taneous decomposition. It is from this part exclusively that
alum has been manufactured. Its characters may be seen in all

Tyne. Faults upon a much more gigantic scale, which have pushed the broken edges of
the ruptured slate rocks more thana mile out of their relative position, pass down some of
the old valleys which diverge from the central parts of the Cumberland mountains.
These facts afford no supportto the indefensible theories of De Luc. Breaks and disloca-
tions naturally prepared the way for future valleys; for denuding torrents would more
readily scoop valleys out of broken than out of unbroken strata.

* In the colouring of the geological map which accompanies the ‘‘ Survey of the
Yorkshire Coast,” the authors have violated their own system; and in the interior of
the district have represented a considerable part of the coal formation and alum-shale by
one uniform tint. This is unfortunate, and detracts greatly from the value of the map.
A geological map ought, for obvious reasons, to represent by appropriate colours those
formations only which occupy the surface, without any regard to those formations which
are supposed to be below. Had this system been followed, the colour of the coal forma
tion would have been spread over a much larger surface, and the colour of the alum-shale
would have been confined to the coast, the western boundary of the district, and the
valleys of denudation. ‘I'he representation of the alum-shale in Smith’s geological map
of Yorkshire is a good approximation ; but there are some errors in it, especially in the

_ Tepregentation of the outliers neat Guisborough. guatua wily

1826.) . which appear on the Yorkshire Coast. 359

their details in the cliffs south of Whitby, and in the great alum
works at the Peak, Sandsend, Boulby, and Lofthouse. 2.A bed
about the same thickness as the preceding, more compact, and
in the lower portion containing more nodules and concretions,
Near the bottom, the calcareous matter is most abundant, and
the beds assume the precise appearance of the lias formation ;
consisting of bands and flattened nodules of argillaceous lime-
stone alternating with seams of shale. Some of these nodules
contain petroleum, and many when struck give out a strong bitu-
minous odour, which, however, differs from the hepatic odour so
commonly given out by fetid limestone. 3. Hard, almost com-
pact slate-clay, about 30 or 40 feet thick, which makes asmooth
water-worn cliff, and forms the base of the whole group. The
lower parts of this group may be studied with advantage in the
gue north of Robin Hood’s Bay, and in the cliff near Runswick
*
_ (2.) The next group is very well defined, and wherever
it appears, makes a prominent feature in the cliff. It is about
120 feet thick, and may be subdivided into the two following
portions. 1, Beds of shale, rather meagre and micaceous, alter-
nating with concretions and thin beds of clay ironstone. The
concretions of ironstone often contain much calcareous matter,
and put on the form of septaria. In the lower part of this set
of beds, they are least abundant, and only present themselves in
the form of a few scattered nodules. 2. Thin beds of micaceous
sandstone divided by seams of meagre micaceous slate-clay.
The sandstone is in some places siliceous ; in others calcareous
and shelly, and not unfrequently passes into a rough argillacecus
flag-stone. This portion, which is generally more thick and
prominent than the one which is superior to it, is well exposed
in the cliff north of Robin Hood’s Bay, and in the cliff near
Staiths.
__ (3.) The lowest group exposed in the sections of Boulby and
Huntcliff, very much resembles the upper part of the first group.
It is, however, generally less smooth and laminated, and is
not so liable to decomposition. Some portions of this group
are sandy; andit is also traversed by somé beds of impure shell
limestone ; the whole thickness exposed in the sections on the
coast is above 100 feet.
- The united thickness of the exposed parts of these three
Ae amounts, therefore, almost to 500 feet. And in some
ruitless attempts to find coal, nearly 300 feet of still lower beds
were formerly pierced through, without reaching the bottom of
* The cliffs composed of the first group are often intersected by a double system of
fissures, which divide the shale into rhomboidal masses. ‘This fact is very common in
formations of greywacké slate, and indeed in argillaceous deposits of every age. Small
of selenite abound in some parts of the decomposing shale. In a vein which
intersected the cliff near Runswick Bay, I met with some crystals of selenite of extraordi-

nary beauty,

360 Prof. Sedgwick on the Classification of the Strata [May,

the formation. The whole thickness of the alum-shale is proba-
bly not much less than 1000 feet.
- “The fossils of the formation are too well known to require any
description. It contains ferns and impressions of fish, at least
very much resembling those which are found in the lias of the
Dorsetshire coast. There are imbedded in it many remains of
the Ichthyosaurus; and throughout its mass are specimens innu-
merable of the gryphea incurva and of other characteristic lias
fossils. Moreover it does not, I believe, contain a single speci-
men of the most characteristic fossils, either of the Oxford clay,
or of the Kimmeridge clay. If, therefore, strata are to be iden-
tified by their imbedded remains, the alum-shale is the true
representative of the lias. ertomte
Again, the alum-shale in Yorkshire appears precisely in the
same situation in which the lias is generally found in its range
across our island; viz, at the base of the great terrace which
overlooks the plain of the new red sandstone. Lastly, it is
grouped in the same manner as the lias. This will be evident
by comparing the previous statements with the sections given
in the “ Outlines of the Geology of England,” p. 262, 263.
How the conclusion which seems to follow from all these facts
is to be avoided, I am at a loss to understand. It may be said
that the alum-shale is thicker than the lias formation, and that
it contains much less calcareous matter. But the same remark
would exclude the shale beds at Lyme, in Dorsetshire, from this
formation,—a conclusion which cannot be admitted, inasmuch
as the argillaceous cliff of Lyme is surmounted by the inferior
oolite and forest marble, and, therefore, cannot be mistaken.*

Sect. 8.—New Red Sandstone and Magnesian Limestone, &e.

It is unnecessary in this place to mention the various indica-
tions of the new red sandstone formation in the plains of Cleve-
land, or in the bed of the Tees. In following the line of coast,
it first appears near the mouth of the river (a little above West
Coatham), in its most characteristic form, associated with veins
of gypsum. North of the Tees, itis at Hartlepool succeeded by
the magnesian limestone. The sections on the coast do not
distinctly show the order of superposition; but the general dip
of the beds in the whole district and their relative position, would
lead us to conclude that the magnesian limestone was the lowest
of the two formations above-mentioned, and that both were infe-
rior to the alum-shale. The fact, however, does not admit of
any doubt; for it is well known that the two formations run
together to the central parts of the island, and preserve the same
constant relations to each other, and to the beds above them.

* Mr. Smith, as has been stated above, identifies the alum-shale with the Oxford clay.
In dissenting from such an authority, I cannot refrain from expressing my admiration
of the incomparable labours by which he has laid the foundation of all that is accurately
known respecting the arrangement of our secondary strata,

1826. which appear on the Yorkshire Coast, 361

1 Recapitulation.

_ It appears from what has been stated above, that if we descend
from the region of the carboniferous limestone and the coal
measures of the county of Durham, cross the plain of Cleveland,
and examine the deposits which present themselves along the
Yorkshire coast, we shall in succession pass over the following
formations :—
__1. Magnesian limestone, the lowest of Conybeare’s superme-
dial order.*
’ 2. New red sandstone, and red marl with gypsum.
_ 3. Lias formation. Represented by the alum-shale, which in
many of its mineralogical characters, in its great subdivisions,
in its geological position, and in its fossils, appears identical
with the lias.
_ 4, A newer coal formation; but perfectly developed, and
immediately succeeded by the coral-rag oolite. This formation,
therefore, stands in the place of the whole lower division of the
Oolite series (viz. inferior oolite, great oolite, forest marble, corn-
brash, &c.), and of the Oxford clay.

_ 5. Coral-rag oolite, —

6. Kimmeridge clay. The denudations on the coast are here
imperfect ; but the Portland oolite and Purbeck limestone, the
Hastings sands, Weald clay, Shanklin sands, Cambridge and
Folkstone galt, and green-sand, appear to be wanting.

7. Chalk formation.

8. Traces of tertiary beds.

9. Diluvium of Holderness, &c.

Such appears to be the result of the facts detailed in the pre-
ceding sections of this paper.

——
Trinity College, Cambridge, April 18, 1826.
P.S. The latter part of the preceding paper was written

while the author was absent from the University, and in a place
where he had no opportunity of consulting the “ Journal of the

.* It does not, in this part of England, generally appear in the conglomerate form;
but it is separated from the coal measures by a very peculiar formation of sand and
sandstone, which is nearly co-extensive with the magnesian limestone, and therefore
unconformable to the coal measures. This peculiar formation, which ranges from the
‘southern extremity of Yorkshire into the edge of Northumberland, was first brought
into notice by Mr. Smith under the name of the Pontefract-castle rock. In the county
of Durham, it often appears in the form of coarse light-coloured, and almost incoherent
sand of extremely variable thickness. The most magnificeut exhibition of it is in the
banks of the Weare, above the northern boundary of the magnesian limestone. It is
there of a very great thickness, and appears partly in the form of yellow incoherent sand,
and partly in a form exactly resembling many portions of the new red sandstone. It is
not a little extraordinary that this most interesting deposit (which is likely to produce
very ruinous effects in shafts sunk for coal within the boundary of the limestone) should
still be almost entirely unknown to the practical men resident in the great northern
coal-field,

362 On the Classification of the Strata, &c. [May,

Royal Institution.” On that account, he was prevented from
referring to Prof. Brande’s remarks.on the classification of the
English formations between the chalk and the red marl ( Jour-
hal of Science,” No. 39, p.29—81). Any thing proceeding
from the pen of the Secretary of the Royal Society is entitled to
our attention and respect. But the remarks in question appear
rather to have been compiled from thie authority of others, than
to have been the result of personal observations; and it has
been shown above, that in the classification of certain forma-
tions below the chalk, our best authorities have been at variance.
This may account for some statements, in the paper,alluded to,
which are not borne out by the natural sections exhibited in
different parts of our island. :

At p. 29 (No. 39), the blue marl, which supports the Under-
cliff rock in the Isle of Wight, is identified with the Kimmeridge
clay which appears at Shotover Hill, near Oxford. Mr. Smith
erroneously identifies the Weald clay and Kimmeridge clay ;
other writers have confounded the blue marl (Cambridge galt)
with the Weald clay. It is only ty a combination of both these
errors that the blue marl and Kimmeridge clay can be con-
founded. In point of fact, they are separated from each other
by five distinct formations.

Mr. Brande states (p. 30), that the formations between the
dron sand and the chalk “scarcely admit of distinction into
strata.” The separation of the formations is difficult; but in
papers published in the latter part of 1824, in the Annails of
Philosophy, the difficulties have been completely overcome.

In the subsequent paragraph (p. 30,31), the sands of Woburn
and Ryegate are identified with the sands of Tunbridge Wells
and Hastings. In the above-mentioned papers, it is demonstrated
that this supposition is erroneous.

At p. 31, it is stated that the cron sand “reaches the north
coast of Yorkshire, and covers much of its western district.”
The whole coal formation, described in the preceding paper,
appears to be confounded by the same author with the zron sand.
This supposition involves a very great error, and is directly op-
posed to the evidence exhibited by the sections on the coast.

Lastly, in the same page, the alum-shale of Whitby, in York
shire, is identified with the Kimmeridge clay ; an assumption
which is entirely inadmissible; for the two formations bear little
resemblance to each other, containa completely distinct suite of
organic remains, and have different geclogical relations.

It has been considered necessary to notice the preceding pas-
sages in Prof. Brande’s “ Outlines of Geology,” because they
were opposed to the conclusions which this paper was intended
to establish. .

-1826.] On the Measurement of Heights by One Barometer. 363

Articte VI.
Reply to Mr. Herapath. . By W. G. Horner, Esq
(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)

GENTLEMEN, Bath, April 2, 1826.
On the subject of Mr. Herapath’s reply, contained in your
last Number, I beg leave to explain, that any charge of inten-
tional fallacy was far from my thoughts. Whether I have been
ilty of misrepresentation, or advanced a groundless charge, I
“cheerfully leave to our readers’ decision.
) I am, yours, &c. W.G. Horner.

Articte VII.

-On the Accuracy of the Measurement of Heights by One Baro-
meter, By J. Nixon, Esq.

(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)

GENTLEMEN, Leeds, April 6, 1826,
Presumine that the comparison of heights measured as well
trigonometrically as by one barometer might prove interesting to
some of your readers, I have taken the liberty to transmit you
the following list, computed from observations made in 1822 to
1825 inclusive.
The barometers employed, of the description invented by Sir
‘H. Englefield, were four in number, viz.

One by Troughton, capacity ;1,, marked ry in the table.

Ollond 5.2.2... gr
Newman. ........ qe N
Ditto (iron cistern). I
Unknown.......5.. 3/5 U

With regard to the measurements by the first two mentioned
instruments, undertaken solely with a view to ascertain that no
gross errors had been committed in the trigonometrical observa-
tions or calculations, and of which nearly one-half were entrusted
‘to the guides, &c. it must be remarked that little of the attention
requisite to insure extreme accuracy was devoted to the gene-
tality of the observations. Inapplicable as is the remark to the
measurements by the other barometers, which were for purposes
of geology, and made with excessive care, it becomes necessary
to state, in order to inspire increased confidence in measure-
ments of this description, that there was no selection of those
favourable circumstances of pressure, temperature, &c. so essen-

364 Mr. Nizon on the Accuracy of the = [May,

tial to complete success. The observations include, on the con-
trary, not only the extremes of pressure, but also most rapid rates
of its variation, and comprehend temperatures ranging, in calms
and storms, from 26° to 78°F. Add to which the operations at
the reference stations commenced in general much too early in
the morning, and were frequently protracted, especially in
winter, to a late hour after sunset. Wart.

The following methods were resorted to, in order to ascertain
the rate of the fall or rise per hour of the barometer, whence to
obtain by interpolation the pressure at the base at the instant of
the observation on the summit of the mountain. Firstly, by
‘noting the height of the barometer at the lower station before
as well as after the ascent; secondly, by repeating the observa-
tion of the pressure after a sufficient lapse of time either at the
base, or in some eligible situation in its vicinity ; and, lastly, by
obtaining the pressure at some other low station of which the
altitude, as well as that of the one visited before the ascent, had
been determined trigonometrically. In one or two instances, the
pressure at the summit, when the stay there was considerably
protracted, was taken twice; not with the erroneous idea of
ascertaining the rate of the variation, but in order to furnish two
independent measurements, of which the mean would probably
be found more accurate than either separately. pars

The calculations were made exclusively from the set of tables
given in the present volume of the Annals. Twice the observed
temperature of the air at the upper station being considered as
the sum of the detached thermometers, the deduced altitude was
finally augmented, as pointed out in Table VI. rh
_ With regard to the trigonometrical operations, as I shall pro-
bably have occasion to recur to the subject, I restrict myself for
the present to the following brief particulars. The horizontal
distances were, with few exceptions, derived from the accurate
bases given in the third volume of the Ordnance survey; the
requisite angles being measured on a good theodolite reading off
to 30”. The zenith distances were taken by a most excellent
instrument, expressly designed for the measurement of small
vertical arcs to the accuracy of 2" or 3’, Ona comparison of the
results derived from different bases, &c. it would appear that the
error in altitude could never amount to ten feet, and would most
probably rarely exceed as many inches.

As the table does not comprise heights surpassing 1700 feet,
we may inquire whether the errors, in the case of the measure-
ment, by the same method of still loftier mountains, will continue
to increase in proportion to the elevation? In the first place,
those inaccuracies arising from the impossibility of ascertaining
the exact temperature of the mercurial column, which give the
appearance of such marked irregularity in the ‘barometrical
measurement of small differences of level will be nearly constant

1826;]) .Measurément of Heivhts by One Barometer, 365°

without regard to the altitude. Secondly, the pressure when
incorrectly noted at the upper station will introduce errors aug-
menting in the ratio of the height (or rather inversely as the
pressure observed) ;—errors which increased practice will, how-
ever, gradually reduce to insignificant quantities. Thirdly, an
improper estimate of the temperature of the air at the summit,
although it would vitiate the measurement in the ratio of the
height, yet granting the error of observation equal to 3°, its value
for an altitude of 10,000 feet would not exceed 65 feet. Lastly,
when the decrement of temperature differs from the rate made
use of-in the construction of Table VI, the errors will increase
as the square of the altitude, and may become in some instances
a notable proportion of great elevations.

Phare the honour to be, Gentlemen,

Your most obedient servant,

J. Nixon.
ee

_ Heights above the Ground Floor of ‘Gearstones Inn.

rei

Error of Bar.
Interval. | Trig. |~——----—“
a

Cam Fell ...........+e2++-| Smiles) NE 7 hours:| 873ft.| —-'| 38 {D.
Cash Knot......0...00005-] 3 ESE_ |10 *| 82°} — | 1 JD.
Whernside...... SE A TH A NNW | 8 1362 | — | 25 iL.
Above the Ribble under Horton Bridge.
Feizer Heights ............| 3 ° | Sby W [II 448 | 20 | — JI.
Moughton Fell:...........| 1. © | SW) Il 655° | 12 | — |IT.
Dubcote Ridge ........+2+.} 2 SE. | 4 162 s | — IN.
Cam Rakes,.....s0.0e00.0- 5g NNE | 7 903 | -— 3 |N-
Cash Knot......0cse022-0+|° 3k NNE | 8 1187 | 28 | — IN.
MMO BOLT ose wend |) oe _— 1 pe _ TANe
Fountain’s Fell............| 3% ESE {ll . 1443 — 12. |N-
*Foxhope Fell.........+.-.| 3 NE [ll 1483 | — | 61 |N-
MMO anol eckccstadsezepel — — |6- = — 4 12 |p.
TEV UBERU, -'.,5g 50h oee nie oe © 2 ENE | 8 1529 — 3 |N-
ERED pi 45 baeided. beacies efi os — |i. — — | 42 IN.
OES PRAT EE ere ies Se § — 3 Ao ATs
Seca she hesestisayd — |6 _ — | 32 |D.
Above the Wharf under Deepdale Bridge. .

Wharf Head .........2...-| 4 WNW |I10 364 | 20 | — Ir.
Cam Rakes...... Spo sieoges « 34 W by N /10 743 $3, id oces AT
eet Bell bn cerereataness| 2 WNW |10 1018 | — 2 |T.
Greenside. ...ss0.ssseeeee+| 35 NW |6 994 54 ee aT
Deepdale Moor.........+++| 1 N 4. 1090 | 27 — IN.
Stake Fells }..55 205+ -tiemens|): 1d, NE 13 1202 )| — 3l {T.

My ob tang ebb 0 ds --| 4b NW /|10 Fi ae eee
oo eee Pee ei — en} p18 = — | 54 IT.

’* The temperature at the summits (Oct. 25, 1825) was’ steadily at 33° from 10 a.m.
to 4 p.m. ; but on reaching their common middle base, 400 feet lower, the thermometer
Tose on numerous trials to 38°, 39°, and 40° !

366 On the Measurement of Heights by One Barometer. [MAY,

Above the Wharf under Hubberholm Bridge. .

Enror of Bar.

Interval. | Trig. |~-—~--—4
Raisegill Hag ....eeee+-ee.| 2gmiles| W | 4 hours,1220ft) 26 | — |N,
Ditto eesesee ereeeeeseees| baad 7 nic od AT — .
Above the Wharf under Buckden Bridge. i 40)
Raisegill Hag .............| 38 Ww ji 1256 |} 15 | — INV
acy ina = — 6 = 24 — |Ne
Litton Hill......-.00.-+.--| 3 W 7 1257 8 _ u,
Buckden Birks ............] 1 Wsw | 17 1273 — 9*"|U.
Stake Fell > ......cces Coesep a -we NW {il 1379 30 — IN.
Settron Fell. ......esseee0-] 12 NE 6 1572 — 12 |N.
Ditto eeecreserenseeeesenss —— o— 7 ey 48 ome D.

Above the Wharf under Kettlewell Bridge.

Cover Head ...0sss+eeeeee-| 25 NE |7 950 8 — |N.
itto eer ares estsererese eco —_ 6 aaa 3 ae N.
Ditto ...0 csacecoversevee! - 1 _ — 3 10.
Ditto eeresecesesereseeeses| —— — 6 = — 28 D.-
Dieser va ciewe ake o's oeiepre|: — — 4 — — AT |T.
Starbotton Birks ,...+.+-.-.| 28 NW |8 1278 | — 8 |N.
Ditt0. .ceeeseg cocerceves | — a 6 _ —_ 20 |U.
Ditto wavcccescrcensesenel — _ 9 — — $3...,E..
Litton Hill .....--eeseee-ee| 6 NW |8 1320 _ 3 IN.
Kettlewell Cam,......-++--| 45 N 6 1389 — 43 |D.
Settron Fell ..eseo--eereve-| 4 NNW | 7 1635 — 54. Te
Above the Wharf under Linton Bridge.

Coalgrove, Grassington wa rid 25 | NE 3 4 752 1 — | 68 (Bs
Meugher Fell .,...-..++..-| 5 NE 1359 i dD
Above the Wharf at Harewood Bridge,

Wispore Hilt casspeshtt ts 24 WNW | 7 232: 10 — |D
Helthwaite Hill......... ..] 14 NW | 8 272 — 29 ID.
Wit. th cb cee: bs Bit: — _ 4 —_ 18 — |D.
Herebelow ‘Hill . 2 N by W} 4 318 | 9 |D.
Stainburn Chapel Ground .,.| 43 NW |8 363 | 10 | — “ID,
Great Almias Cliff,........ 58 NW | 8 618 _ Ir Re
DOs ccc seeks swe sabe — 9 — 3 — S
Little Almias Cliff ......... 64 NW !9 139 11 — ID,
Above the Ground Floor of the Inn at, Kilnsey.

M gina Tartar sscsesp- 5 Ww 5 625 —_ 32 |Ts.
Bordley Grit Mal | 1772.01] 94 ssw | 8 634 | 25 | — IN.
Ditto Limestone Hill . e SW |8 128 A — |N-
Kilnsey Moor ...2.+-++-e:- 2 WSW | 2 860 - 46 |T-
DittO. v2. seeder cccssastoce| — — 2 — 10 — |T.
DG O\eiie clos stn sls «eters sone) — — 9 ie wn 12 ID.
Great Close Hill........--.] 5 WwW 8 909 5 — |D.
Cam Rakes ...2...--- paves! LZ NW 9 1034 _~ 25 |D-
Blaedyke Moss ...... eeeee-| 10 NW /|8 1053 1 — |D-
The High Mark ........+..| 23 Ww 9 1130 — | 1 |T-
Ditto. weoeereeeteeeeeereseeee| = — 8 — — 52 T.
Ditto, -oessrecgecesecececs| om _ 9 ee 47 sie Ble
DUO. wv csenstestnseserecsct — ~ 7 nen es 13. INe

1826.] Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations. . 367

Above the Ground Floor of the Iun at Kilnsey (continued).

Error of Bar.
Interval. | Trig. |\~——-—-—~

—

a | ———————— |

Flockrake. .......---.-...-| 33miles| W 9 hours.}1150 ft.

— eos
—— = — mh se fois ID.
Meugher Fell.......... see.| 43 ENE | 8 1273 _ 24 |T.
lp gla ey bd ll NW jill 1318 14 — ID.
ror 7 had Ped rr 32 D.
Raisegill = diy inated AL FEF NW |10 i370 | — | 36 |r.
Goskoe Moor...... aS Be 6% NW |10 1482 oe 25 IN.
Foxhope yo ER ta 9 WNW | 8 1614 13 aw! Ip,
. fgecal i W aee 19 WNW ill 1660 37 sd AD
Above the Canal at Skipton.
Skibeden Haw ....-...---- | 1% | NE | 2 | 488 [ — | 12 [D.
r Sum of errors ..... - + 681 feet,
ht RE RS e-e- — 1067
Mean altitude...... 1066

Mean error ....... — 5

Articte VIII.

Astronomical Observations, 1826.
By Col, Beaufoy, FRS.

Bushey Heath, near Stanmore,
Latitude 51° 37’ 443” North. Longitude West in time 1’ 20-93/, _

“March 9. Emersion of Jupiter’s first { 6h 34’ th Mean Time at Bu
i ok 117 ip jp faa ciate 6 36 Mean Time at Babet.
March 16. Finiestbn of Supiter 's first 8 27 o Mean Time at Bushey.

‘satellite 5 8 28 22 Mean Time at Greenwich.
March 30. Emersion of J upiter’ s second + 43 21 Mean Time.at Bushey.

BatelNtG! ivias:+ nsie)s osunie'sic'b.n 44 42 Mean Time at Greenwich.
March 30, Emersion of Jupiter’ s first 113 3 15 20 Mean Time at Bushey.

GOLGtEEGid aie'nip tla «de 16 41 Mean Time at Greenwich,

* Jupiter not well defined,

368 Dr. Henry’s Analysis of acrystallized\Compound [May,

Articte IX.

Analysis of a crystallized Compound of Hyponitrous and Sul-
phuric Acids. By William Henry, MD. FRS, &c.

(To the Editors of the Annals of: Philosophy.) —

GENTLEMEN, Manchester, April 12, 1826.

- Asour three months ago, I was indebted to Mr. Mutrie, an
extensive manufacturer of sulphuric acid and other chemical
‘products, at Lloyd-field, near Manchester, for the opportunity
‘of examining a substance, which was found in the leaden pipe
that conveys away the foul air from one of the chambers used
to condense the acid, formed by burning nitre and foreign sul-
phur in aseparate-vessel. The weather was at that time intensely
cold, and the product of acid had _unaccountably fallen off to a
great extent. It was suspected, therefore, that the ventilating

ipe was closed with sublimed sulphur; but when examined
internally, it was found to have been completely stopped, at an
angle where from an horizontal it takes a perpendicular direc-
tion, by a crystalline solid not unlike borax in appearance. The

ortion, which was brought to me, formed a solid mass at the

ottom of a bottle, from which it could not be detached without
so much force as to destroy. the shape of any crystals that
might have composed it. hen kept for a day or two ina
warm room, it assumed a soft or pasty form; and, by standing
still longer, a liquid of rather thick consistence, and of the spe-
cific gravity 1°831, floated over the more solid part.

The crystalline portion of the mass, from which the liquid had
been drained, but which still continued a soft solid, was intensely
acid to the taste, and, when handled, stained the fingers like
strong nitrous acid. When added to water, a rise of tempera-
ture of more than 60° F. was produced, and a violent efferves-
cence took place, accompanied with red fumes resembling those
of nitrous gas when escaping into the atmosphere. A similar
extrication of gas was observed, on pouring the deliquiated por-
tion of the mass into water. By dissolving a given weight of
the solid, in a gas bottle nearly filled with water, gas was
collected at the rate of 16°6 cubic inches from 100 grains. Of
this, which proved to be nitrous gas of remarkable purity, rather
more than one-half was evolved without applying heat, and the
remainder issued on heating the solution.

When the crystalline substance was heated alone in a small
glass bulb, the stem of which was bent so as to pass under the
surface of water in a pneumatic trough, it was found to sustain a
temperature of 220° b . for more than an hour without parting
with any gas; but at 280°, nitrous gas was evolyed. A tem-

1826.] © of Hyponitrous and Sulphuric Acids. 869

perature, however, of 400° did not entirely decompose it; for
the liquid which remained, when poured into water, gave abun-
dance of nitrous gas. The proportion of that gas, disengaged
by heating the solid salt, exceeded what was evolved from the
same qanty by solution in water; 100 grains of the concrete
substance affording 19°5 cubic inches. Besides the permanent
gas, a vapour was also separated by heat, which was evidently
nitrous acid, since it tinged a few drops of water, contained ina
small receiver, first green and blue, and then orange.

Having ascertained that the concrete salt contained no fixed
base, and that it yielded nothing but sulphuric acid, nitrous
acid, and nitrous gas, I proceeded to examine the proportions of
those two acids by the following simple method.

One hundred grains of the solid in a soft state were dissolved.
in water, which nearly filled a small gas bottle ; and all the
nitrous gas, which the solution was capable of affording, was
expelled by heat and collected. The liquid was then added to a
considerable quantity of warm distilled water, and solution of
pure baryta was cautiously poured in, till the whole of both acids
was exactly neutralized. The sulphate of baryta, which was
immediately precipitated, after being collected and exposed toa
low red heat, weighed 200 grains, equivalent to 68 grains of real
sulphuric acid. ‘To the filtered liquid, solution of sulphate of
soda was added, anda second product of sulphate of baryta was
obtained, weighing, when edulcorated and gently calcined, 20

rains. These are equivalent to 21 grains of nitrite of baryta,
and to 7°8 of nitrous acid, under which view we may fairly con-
sider it; because though it be true that the nitrous acid is
instantly decomposed when brought into contact with any base,
and is resolved into nitric and pernitrous acids, yet the quantity
of a base, which neutralizes the newly formed acids, must indi-
cate also the quantity of nitrous acid from which they have
resulted.

One hundred grains, therefore, of the crystalline substance,
afford }

Grains.

re sulphuric acid. .....+++++++++ 68°000
itrous gas (16°6 cub. in.) 5-273 ;

Nitrous oa ; a fog ne oe at a \ 13:073

WAAC cdi alv cloned necmnibarion 30h tag oes

100-000

In this case, however, the results of analysis do not give
direct information of the nature of the original solid, because the
elements of the nitrous compounds are doubtless evolved in a
state of arrangement very different from that in which they had
previously existed in the solid itself. After considering the

New Series, vou. Xt. 2B

370 Dr. Henry's Analysis of a crystallized Compound (May,

subject under various aspects, it appears to me most probable
that the following is the constitution of the solid, the atomic
numbers being adapted to the hydrogen scale.

Sulphuric acid, 5 atoms (40 x 5). ........ 200
Hyponitrous acid,* | atom. .............. 38
Water, 9 BUNIDS (OK DJ. co csscsceavsoanve. 40

eee

Weight of its atom . Seeoevetovneesseosevese 283.

Or in 100 parts,

SHIDDUIG AGIC pone ns cnn 0 seeeecict oe ad me
PEVDORISOUSOCIO 05 tins snisinn ahaa ainices 46.Aet ee
AERTS ian aie Dhecns cus tit 5 sl pater eal hee 15-91

100-00»

The excess of water obtained by experiment over the theore-
tical proportion, may be ascribed to the solid having imbibed
water in addition to that which is essential to it in a crystallized
form.

The changes which the solid undergoes when brought into
contact with water, are probably the following :—An atom of
hyponitrous acid (which it is convenient for our present purpose
to. view as constituted of an atom of nitrous gas united with an
atom of oxygen) is decomposed; the atom of nitrous gas
escapes ; and the atom of oxygen, uniting with a contiguous
atom of hyponitrous acid, composes an i
atom of nitrous acid. This will be
better understood with the aid of the

annexed symbols, @D representing the

atom of nitrogen, and © that of oxy~-
gen. The two upper symbols denote
two atoms of hyponitrous acid, and
the two lower ones express an atom of

* The existence of hyponitrous acid (sub-nitrous acid of Dalton, actde pernitreux of
Gay-Lussac), though it has been questioned by one or two chemical philosophers of
great name, I consider as established by a variety of facts and arguments, which I have
fully stated elsewhere (Elem. of Chem. 10th Edit. i. 312,318). No doubt on the sub-
ject can, it appears to me, exist in the mind of any one who attentively peruses M. Gay-
Lussac’s excellent memoir, in the first volume of Annales de Chimie et de Physique, on
the Compounds of Azote and Oxygen. ‘The series of those compounds, which would
otherwise have been an interrupted one, is completed as follows :

Vols. of Atoms of Atomic wt.
nit. oxy. Forming. nit. ox. (nit, 14, ox. 8,

Nitrous oxide (protoxide), 1 + 0-5 .... lvol. 20. Fo + Dee. 22 0
Nitrous gas (deutoxide).. 1 + Ir 4... 2vols..... 1 + 2 «+++ 30
Hyponitrous acid....... 1 + 1:5 .... Lvoh .... 1 + 3... 38
Nitrous acid ..... cenip Luk Se wece TWO cose ch Oe sheen
MENG AOE. cecssacees Lt '% Vb ssc lvolk eon J 5... 54

1826.], of Hyponitrous and Sulphuric Acids. 371

nitrous gas, andan atom of nitrous acid, into which the upper ones
are resolved by the transference ofan atom of oxygen from the one
to the other. To confirm this explanation, it 1s necessary that
the proportion of nitrous gas to the nitrous acid obtained by
experiment, should agree nearly with the proportion of the equi-
valent of the former compound to the equivalent of the latter.
Now the proportion of 5:273 to 7:8 approaches so nearly the
proportion of 30 (the equivalent of nitrous gas), to46 (the equiva-
lent of nitrous acid), that we may consider the discrepancy as
arising from unavoidable errors of experiment, the fourth propor-
tional being in fact 44°37.

The crystalline solid which has been above described is pro-
bably identical with that obtained many years ago by MM,
Clémeut and Desormes (Ann. de Chimie, lix. 335), by mingling,
in a glass balloon, sulphurous acid, nitrous gas, atmospheric air,
and aqueous vapour; and also with a similar compound, after-
wards formed by M. Gay-Lussac, by adding to sulphuric acid
the product of the distillation of nitrate of lead, which he consi-
ders as chiefly hyponitrous acid (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. i,
407). It furnishes another example, in addition to those before
known, of a weak acid serving as a base to a more powerful one.
The combinations of fluoric acid with silica and with boracic
acid, are familiar instances ; and M. Berzelius has lately disco-
vered others in the compounds of fluoric acid with the columbic,
titauic, tungstic, and molybdic acids. These, however, differ
from the compound of hyponitrous and sulphuric acids in
possessing greater permanency, so as to form with bases distinct

enera of salts, entitled tothe names of fluo-titanates, fluo-colum-
yah &c.; whereas the compound of sulphuric and hyponitrous
acids is instantly decomposed by contact with a base, and the
salts obtained are identical with those which would have been
formes if those acids had been separately united with the same
ase.

ARTICLE X.

An Historical Sketch of Photometry, with Remarks.
By-the Rev. Baden Powell, MA. FRS. .

(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)

GENTLEMEN, April 10, 1826.
To possess some principle upon which to deduce at least
tolerably accurate measures of the absolute or relative illumi-
nating powers of different species of natural or artificial light, is
of no inconsiderable importance both in respect to many points
of scientific investigation, and to various questions of practical

and economical calculation.
2n2

372 Rev. Mr. Powell’s Historical Sketch [May,

Under the former head we may enumerate several cases in
optics, in which a variation in the intensity of light takes place,
which it would be desirable to reduce to some definite measure,
so as to establish the law of the phenomenon ; for instance, the
different degrees of light reflected from a plane surface at diffe-
rent angles of incidence ; and the intensities of polarized light
reflected at different azimuths of the second glass in Malus’s
apparatus.

The importance of some mode of comparing the intensity of

light from the various natural sources, whether celestial or ter-
restrial, is also readily seen, towards a more complete knowledge
of the constitution of things. To compare in this way the
brightness of the fixed stars, as well as of the reflected light of
the planets, is of the highest interest to the astronomer; whilst
to sbtain similar measures of the light emitted from incandescent
and burning bodies is not less important to the chemist and the
natural philosopher.
’ In the more mixed departments of physical inquiry, the con-
nexion between the illuminating power and the heating (or.
according to my principle, the latent heat of the light), in dif.
ferent cases, readily occurs as a point, to the determination of
which the possession of some standard of measurement would
be very essential. The phenomena of the solar spectrum are a
familiar instance where this sort of measurement is of peculiar
interest. ;

In relation to practical objects, the illuminating powers of the
light produced by the different forms of lamps, by the combus-
tion of different materials, and especially of the different sorts of
gas, have excited much inquiry and controversy. And in rela-
tion to these, as well as the former topics, with all the boasted
improvements of science, we have still to confess that no accu-
rate and unexceptionable method of measurement or comparison —
has yet been proposed, or put in practice.

The interest which both the former scientific questions, and
especially these last practical ones, have excited of late, leads us
to hope that the subject may, before long, undergo so thorough
and well-instituted an examination as may produce some
method of obtaining at least an approximate measure of the rela-
lative intensities of light.

Meanwhile it may neither be uninteresting in itself, nor, per-
haps, without some use in subserviency to sucha design, to take
a brief and cursory survey of the progress which has been made
in this branch of science; and to make a few remarks on the
principles of the various methods hitherto proposed, which may
possibly lead to some suggestions for their further improvement.

It does not appear that the idea of measuring the intensity of
light eccurred to philosophers till at a comparatively recent

1826.] of Photometry, with Remarks, 373

period. Huygens threw out some hypothetical ideas relative to
this sort of inquiry; but it would seem that Marie, a capuchin
friar, was the first who treated the subject with any pretension
to accuracy; he published a small work about the close of the
17th century, but his first principles were erroneous. (See Leslie
on Heat, p. 404.) ;

Bouguer published his elementary work on the subject in 1729;
an improved edition by Lacaille appeared in 1760.

His method is founded on the principle that the tenuity of
light varies as the square of the distance from the source; two
unequally luminous or illuminated objects are viewed nearly in
the same line, and the brighter removed till the impressions
appear equal; the relative intensities of light are obtained from
the ratio of the squares of the distances. A modification of this
method was used by Sir W. Herschel in his experiments on the
quantities of light stopped by different media (Philos. Transac.
1800); and in various forms it has been employed in numerous
other experimental researches.

Lambert, about 1760, published his treatise, where he intro-
duced the term Photometria. Prof. Leslie censures some of his
investigations ; while he allows him credit for genius and origin-
ality (Leslie, p. 405). He proposed the thermometrical principle ;
but admitted the difference between its indications and the
degree of illuminating power.

Count Rumford proposed a new method by a comparison of
shadows ; for which an apparatus was contrived, to which he
gave the name of a photometer (Phil. Trans. vol. 84). _ The prin-
ciple was a modification of that of Bouguer; the shadows being
equalized to the eye, the ratio of the squares of the distances of
the lights producing them gave the relative intensities. In allu-
sion to methods on these principles, Prof. Leslie observes, that
’ “ machinery of such a complex nature is by no means entitled
to the name of a photometer ; each observation performed by it
is really a distinct process of experiment, and which requires
dexterity and skill in the operator.” (406).

But it is to be observed that all these methods are merely
comparative ; we have no invariable standard of light, to which
other species or degrees of illumination are referred; no absolute
point of departure from which a scale of intensity commences,

Mr. Ritchie, in a paper “ on Leslie’s Photometer, Xe.” in the
Edinburgh Journal of Science, No. 4, maintains that the method
of shadows is defective when applied to light of ditterent colours,
in which case, he says, it is impossible to bring the shadows to
the.same degree of density, and that a difference in colour will
always be perceptible.

_ Another modification of the principle of comparing intensities
was adopted by Sir W. Herschel, for measuring the relative illu-

374 Rev. Mr. Powell's Historical Sketch (May,

minating power of the different primary rays (Phil. Trans. 1800),
‘but it, perhaps, was not susceptible of any great degree of
accuracy.

The method employed by M. Frauenhofer in his researches on
the spectrum, for the same purpose, consisted in having a diago-
nal mirror placed at the focus of the eye-tube of a telescope so
that its edge bisected the field of view. Its surface being illu-
* minated with variable intensity by a lamp having an adjustment
for that purpose, the light was equalized with that of the coloured
ray seen in the other half of the field: hence from the squares of
the distances of the lamp, the ratio of the intensities was deduced.
For a particular description, see Edin. Phil. Jour. No. 19, p. 32.

I will not here enter upon the objections which have been
raised to this method in the particular case to which it was
applied: they may be seen in an article on Optical Discoveries,
in the British Critic, No. I. Quarterly Series, p. 267. But those
objections will not apply in general to its application as a photo-
meter for other experimental purposes where the lights do not
differ much in colour; the only difficuity in these cases would
be, that the absolute intensity of the light of the lamp cannot be
‘depended on as an invariable standard.

Various modifications of the principle of comparing the
impression fromunequally illuminated surfaces are referred to by
several authors. Thus M. Biot mentions the method of compar-
ing the distances at which a book can be read under different
illuminations (Traité de Phys. vol. iv. p. 642, note) ; but all such
methods must be allowed to be open to considerable uncertainty.

But we have now to turn our attention to methods of an entirely
different kind. The principle suggested by Lambert has been
already adverted to: he seemed to take for granted as the basis
of his mode of measurement, that the heat produced by, or at all
events accompanying the absorption of light, must be, generally
speaking, proportional to the intensity of light acting; bat it is
far from clear whether he had ascertained how far this heating
effect might be considered a property of light, and whether he
was aware of any distinction to be drawn between the solar and
other sorts of light in respect to the heat accompanying or
belonging to them. At the same time (as I have already
observed) he clearly admitted the distinction between the ¢nten-
sity or quantity of light, and the illuminating power of a given
intensity of any particular light. ,

In going upon the same thermometrical principle, Prof. Leslie
has taken the subject in a more extended point of view: he
connected the idea of such a measurement with the theory he
considered established from his experiments; according to
‘which the indication of heat would necessarily be a correct mea-
sure of the intensity of the rays. .

In his work on Heat (1804, p, 160), he mentions as an esta-

- 1826.j of Photometry, with Remarks. 3765

‘blished fact, that if a body be exposed to the sun’s rays, it will
in every possible case be found to indicate a measure of heat
exactly proportional tothe quantity oflight which it has absorbed,
‘and suggests several experimental methods by which, he says,
the exact proportionality may be shown, and that it depends on
darkness of colour.

A full account of the principle, construction, and application
of his photometer, is given in ch. xix. A short sketch may be
acceptable to some readers, especially in reference to the objec-
tions presently to be noticed.

This instrument is constructed with a view to measure the
degree of heat produced by the absorption of the solar rays, dis-
‘tinct from any other heating influence.

On exposing a delicate blackened thermometer in a glass case
to the sun at different elevations, Prof. Leslie found the relative
effects correspond exactly with Bouguer’s estimate of the inten-
sities of light at the same obliquities (p. 408).

From his former experiments, he conceives it proved ih gene«
ral, that light and heat are convertible ; or that heat is only light
in a state of combination; and upon this assumption, the absorp-
tion of heat by a black surface must be an exact measure of the
‘intensity of light.

The photometer, as is well known, is essentially a differential
thermometer, having one bulb of black enamel which absorbs
the rays: the other transparent, so that the temperature of the
surrounding air does not affect the instrument.

The accumulation of heat in the bulb will of course be modi-
fied by the rate of its subsequent dissipation. This is increesed
by any agitation in the air; hence the whole is enclosed in a
thin glass case, which does away this source of inaccuracy
(p. 413). The temperature of the black ball continues tu rise
till the accession of heat is balanced by the loss (p. 426); the
effect is unaltered by the size or thickness of the case (p. 435).

Various suggestions for the application of this instrument in

different questions of scientific and practical interest, are given
in pe xx.: also in his “ Description of Instruments,” Xe.
p.1l.
; The merits of this instrument have of late been much can-
vassed ; in particular, Mr. Ritchie, in his paper before referred
to (p. 322), has discussed séveral of the principal objections
which may be brought against it; these are briefly the follow-
ing :—l. The quantity of heat radiated from the black ball will
vary with the state of the sky, &c.; the wind will also affect it
‘(by affecting the case), 2. Reflected light interferes with the
effect of the sun. 3, Ll/uminating power cannot be measured by
it, but only the quantity of light; the former differs with the
colour of the light.

In the same paper (note, p. 323), it is stated that Dis. Turner

376 Rev. Mr. Powell's. Historical Sketch EMay,

and Christison found the photometer affected by simple heat:
hence Dr. Brewster concludes that no confidence can be placed
in the instrument.

In Mr. Ritchie’s additional observations (Edinb. Journ. y. p-
104), he ascribes Drs. Turner and Christison’s result to using a
portable photometer, the heat rising to the top of the case, and
thus affecting the. upper ball.. He also states these. further
objections ; the imperfect and unequal transparency of the case
causes the quantity of light admitted to vary; and the light
reflected from the inner surface varies at different altitudes of
the sun. When the light-is vertical (as in the torrid zone), the
upper ball will act as a screen to the lower; in this case, also,
part of the light falling on the lower bulb is intercepted by that
part of it-where it joins the stem, and thus excites heat.

These objections appear to me to be well deserving attention.
f long since found that in using the instrument great differences
appeared in its indications, under different circumstances, which
must ¢learly have been owing to some of these interfering
causes. )

But there is another source of inaccuracy which deserves
peculiar notice. When light is absorbed by the black bulb, the
substance of the black glass in the first instance becomes heated,
and this before the heat is communicated to the enclosed air :
owing to this the glass expands; and thus the first effect is
either an apparent contraction of the air, or a very diminished
expansion ; and at every successive instant, the glass continues
to receive more heat, to expand, and then to communicate heat
to the air; so that the effect is always retarded until the temper-
ature of the bulb becomes stationary by the balance of radiation,
when the temperature of the enclosed air continues to rise for a
Short time, till the equilibrium takes place in it also. The
expansion of the glass being now stationary, as well as the effect
on the air, the actual observed effect is the difference of expan-
sion of glass and air; but each of these is proportional to the
degree of heat, and consequently their difference is so likewise.
ence results obtained by taking the initial rate of rising with
this instrument are not comparable, except when the difference
of intensity in the two cases is very small, or nothing. The
results obtained by observing the point at which it becomes
stationary can alone be relied on.

Prof. Leslie proposed, among other applications of his photo-
meter, its employment to measure the effects of the different
rays of the prismatic spectrum; in this case, the distinction is
sufficiently obvious that it applies only to the heating, and not
to the illuminating power of the rays.

It may be matter of question, how far some of the objections
to this instrument, just adverted to, may show its unfitness for
giving accurate measures of the kind here proposed; there are,

1826.) - .of Photometry, with Remarks. 377

however, one or two particulars which it certainly will serve to
exhibit.

For example, it will serve to show whether there be in the
spectrum formed by a prism of any given substance any exterior
heat beyond the visible rays: thatis to say, any heating powers
of a nature transmissible through glass, and acting on the black
bulb. It will not measure the quantity of such effect, nor deter-
mine the point of maximum; for in this case, there is an addi-
tional source of fallacy besides those acting in other cases: this
is the circumstance that when placed on or near the boundary
of the spectrum, so that only a part of the bulb is within it, or
that rays of different powers are acting on different parts of the
bulb, the balance of absorption and radiation of heat is greater in
favour of radiation than in those positions where the whole bulb
is equally immersed in the same ray. The effect of expansion in
the glass is also different : so that, independently of other sources
of error, such measures are not comparable with those in other
parts of the spectrum. These circumstances, if not sufficiently
attended to, become sources of error to a considerable amount,
and in some instances may lead to the most contradictory con-
clusions.* At all events, in cases where the object is merely to
determine the existence of a particular heating effect, not to
measure its magnitude, this instrument may be found applicable,
or where only a rough estimation is required, or merely to observe
whether a considerable increase or decrease of effect takes
place, it may, with proper precaution, be found useful.

In Mr. Ritchie’s second paper (Edin. Jour. No. 5, p. 107), he
gives the method used by Mr. Herschel for obtaining an accurate
measure of the heating power of the sun’s rays. This method
was described in a letter from Mr. H. which formed part of a
communication from Mr. R. read before the Royal Society in
1825, but has not, that ] am aware, been published any where
but in the paper above referred to. It consists in exposing in a
glass vessel or large thermometer, a deep-blue liquid for a given
time to the direct rays of the sun: noting the increase of tem-
perature, which is purposely rendered but small by properly
adjusting the capacity of the instrument: then shading the sun’s
direct rays, and leaving it exposed for an equal time to the free
influence of all other heating and cooling causes, radiation,
conduction, wind, &c. and again noting the effect of these.
The same difference of these, according to their signs, is the
effect’ of mere solar radiation. Dividing this by the time of
exposure, the momentary effect or differential coefficient, which
is the true measure of the intensity of radiation, is obtained.

* In particular I allude to some results which have fallen within my own experience,
I obtained sometime ago some apparently singular indications respecting the heating
power of the solar spectrum, and cannot at present perceive to what source of fallacy they
can betraced, I shall probably take a future opportunity of recurring to this subject.

378 Rev. Mr. Powell’s Historical Sketch (May,

< Availing myself (observes Mr. R.) of the ingenious remark
of Mr. Herschel, I have been enabled to obviate the objections
to which Mr. Leslie’s photometer is obviously liable; and can
now employ it with considerable accuracy as a measurer of the
sun’s radiation” (p. 107). us

With the view of, in some measure, obviating the objection
against Leslie’s photometer, Mr. R. (in a paper read before the
Royal Society in 1825) proposed coating the interior of the bulb
with a black substance. This improvement, however, is super-
seded by his own photometer, an account of which is given in
the Phil. Trans. 1825, Part I; and some remarks made upon it
in the Edin. Jour. of Science, No. 4, p. 339. These remarks are
particularly deserving attention, in reference to the practical
object of comparing the relative illuminating powers of different
species of gas. .

This instrument was, in the first instance, invented upon prin-
ciples deduced from the author’s theory, in which, with Prof.
Leslie, he supposes light to be merely calcric moving with great
velocity ; and that heat is developed in black substances by a
conversion of light into heat: however, without entering upon
theoretical discussion, the construction and action of the instru-
ment are of a nature calculated to avoid the errors just alluded
to. It consists of two air-tight chambers connected by a bent
tube, containing some coloured liquid, having their outer sides of
glass, and within each a diaphragm of black paper. The light
admitted through the glass is absorbed by the black paper, and
there giving out its latent heat, the temperature of the enclosed
air israised. Two lights placed on opposite sides of the instru-
ment are compared by measuring the respective distances from
the instrument necessary to keep the interposed liquid stationary.
This instrument possesses extreme sensibility ; it is affected by
the light of a candle at 20 or 30 feet distance. The author has,
however, candidly acknowledged the inapplicability of any such
method for comparing the illuminating powers of light of differ-
ent colour and quality ; and in his paper (above quoted), he con-
cludes by saying, that “this celebrated question which has of
late agitated not only the philosophical, but even the commer-
cial world, has not yet received a solution sufficiently accurate
to command the assent not only of the impartial observer, but
even that of rival companies.” (p. 325.)

All the varieties of what has been termed the photometer,
upon the principle of the heat developed by a black surface
absorbing the rays from a luminous body, are founded on the
assumption that the heat thus produced is exactly proportional
to the intensity of light incident; but although this heating
effect has been proved to be associated with the light in the most
intimate manner, in a way which I have proved to be strictly
analogous to latent heat, it has not been shown by experiment,

1826.) of Photometry, with Remarks. 379

“ior would it follow on my principle, that any invariable or neées-
sary proportion subsists between the heating and illuminating

wer; and in some cases the contrary is decisively known to
be the case: hence when the term photometer is applied to
’ instruments or apparatus on the principle of comparing the illu-
minating intensities ; in point of fact, a totally different meaning
is attached to it. In other words, there is a want of definition
as to what it is that we intend to measure.

The quantity of light, or its density, may, in certain cases, be
calculated upon optical principles; but it does not necessarily
follow that this bears a proportion to the heating effect. Still
less that it is proportional to the illuminating effect on our eyes.

If this last be the point to be measured by a photometer, it is
evident that the standard ultimately referred to can be no other
than the human eye.

When two lights of different intensity are simultaneously pre-
' sented to the eye, we are unable, by the greatest degree of expe-

rience, to determine with any sort of numerical accuracy the
ratio of the illuminating effects ; but there are cases in which, as
we have already seen, by making the lights undergo certain
modifications, an estimate may be formed. Such are the methods
proposed for deducing the ratio from the means employed to
equalize the lights; and of this equalization (at least within
certain limits), the eye can very sufficiently judge. Another
such principle may be that of diminishing the light till it actually
vanishes, or ceases to produce any impression. The different
degrees of attenuation necessary may give the ratio of the inten-
sities in different cases. The degree of accuracy to which any
such determinations may be carried will depend entirely on the
accuracy with which the eye can judge of the equalization of
the lights, or the point of evanescence ; but the object to be
measured is an impression made upon the same organ. It is
consequently to be remembered in all such researches that the
same uncertainty attaches to the thing to be measured, as to the
standard by which the measure is attempted.

Upon the consideration of the inherent difficulties and uncer-
tainties of the thermometrical method, even in its most unobjec-
tionable form, it seems now to be admitted that we can only
look for accurate comparisons on some modification of the prin-
ciple of equalization of light ; but as yet no method combining
simplicity and accuracy of application with soundness of prin-
ciple has been proposed.

With respect to the general principle of equalization, many

“taethods by which it may be effected will obviously occur. The
methods hitherto alluded to all go upon the plan of altering the
distance of one of the lights, but in some cases other principles
may be resorted to; for example, with gas lights it is easy to
alter the intensity of one by regulating the supply. This method

380 Rev: Mr, Powell’s. Historical Sketch [May,

was adopted by Dr. Fyfe in his experiments on the illuminating
powers of oil and coal gas (Edin. Phil. Journ. No. xxii. p.367) ;
but he estimated the intensity by comparison of shadows ; the
objections to which plan have been already adverted to.

Dr. Brewster has proposed a photometer on the principle of
viewing a luminous point through a telescope, and drawing in
the eye-tube till its image is expanded into a luminous circle.
The intensity of light in this circle diminishes as the square of
the distance from the point of distinct vision. (Treatise on Phil.
Instruments, p. 47, 205), 1813.

The method of comparing different lights suggested by this
author is that of thus attenuating the light till the disk becomes
invisible, in each case ; and then comparing the squares of the
distances for the ratio, ;

Tn trying this method, the great difficulty I found to be that
of being able to say precisely when the object did actually disap-
pear; thus no reliance could be placed on this method for any
thing like accuracy.

But Dr. Brewster’s principle might, with much greater pros-
pect of success, be applied to a simultaneous comparison of two
lights. Two similar telescopes might have their eye-tubes fixed
in such a position that the extremities next the eye should be
close together, and the object ends diverging to the lights, but
only forming a small angle. The lights should be distant, and
the displacement must take place in the object tube, the eye-tube
remaining fixed. A piece of ground glass should be placed close
to the eye-holes ; and the luminous images might be viewed
simultaneously as formed upon this; and the equalization thus
effected. From some rough trials, I am inclined to think that
this method might be found very convenient, and generally
applicable ; and in its principle it is certainly susceptible of
more accuracy than any other of the same kind. A convenient
stand and apparatus for fixing the telescopes, and drawing in
the tubes, might be readily devised. ’

One other principle I may here mention, which was originally
suggested by Bouguer, and which, perhaps, may be applicable
to this sort of measurement. This is the fact that the image of
a luminous object, formed by receiving the rays through a minute
aperture ona white screen, varies in the intensity of its illumina-
tion according to the size of the aperture. By contriving .a
variable aperture, a method might, perhaps, be thus afforded of
equalizing two lights; but I have not subjected this idea to
trial. :

It is confessedly doubtful whether any such methods would be
applicable, except in those cases where we have the lights under
our command; but in the instance of a comparison of different
artificial lights, they may, I conceive, be not undeserving atten-_
tion; and the difficulty arising from difference of colour in the

1826.) of Photometry, with Remarks. 381

flames might be got rid of by receiving the light through similar

risms ; and comparing in each spectrum the same coloured ray,
which, thovgh it might be neither rigidly homogeneous, nor
precisely the same compound in the two cases, would be a suf-
ficiently near approximation to enable the eye to judge of the
equalization of intensity; the relative space occupied by the
same colour in each spectrum should be measured ; and the sum
of the relative illuminations multiplied into the relative spaces,
will give the ratio of the resulting compound illuminations.

But it must be confessed that to be obliged to have recourse
to such troublesome operations and calculations in every mea-
surement will probably make this method inapplicable for
general practical purposes. Nor indeed, according to a remark
before made, can the name of a photometer be properly applied
to an apparatus, in using which so much remains to be done
besides obtaining the simple indication. In saying this, I am of
course going upon the assumption that difference in colour inter-
feres to an injurious amount with the power of judging of the
equalization of lights. But, perhaps, this may not in practice
be found so insuperable a difficulty that skill and experience in
the operator may not sufficiently overcome it. At all events
there are many cases to which this method may be applied with-
out any of the additional precautions here mentioned.

ArTICLE XI.

On the Alterations that must necessarily be made in the System of
_ Chemical Mineralogy, in consequence of the Property of Isomor-
_ phous Bodies to replace one another in indefinite Proportions.

_ By M. J. Berzelius.*

_ Ever since chemistry took part in the classification of mine-
rals, and observation of their external characters consequently
ceased to be exclusively admitted in the determination of species,
the chemical method has met with a difficulty in the property
which certain oxides possess of mutually replacing each other,
without any accompanying change of crystalline form; whence
it happens that when those oxides form colourless compounds,
of nearly equal specific gravities, no difference is perceptible in
the crystal; it can only be discovered by chemical analysis,
Notwithstanding their definition of what constitutes a mineralo-

ical species, the schools of Werner and Haiiy have ranged
crystals of different composition under the same species ; and
to avoid this difficulty, Haiiy was obliged to admit accidental
mixtures, moulded in the form peculiar to a species, by the

* From the Annales de Chimic.

382 M. Berzelius on Tsomorphism as (May;

crystallizing power of its constituent parts ; but at the very time
when the results of accurate chemical analyses began an uncer-
tain contest with that principle of Haiiy’s school, which consi-
ders that two bodies of different composition can never have the
same crystalline form, unless it belong to limited forms (formes
limites), the question was all at once decided by the opportune
and unexpected discovery of M. Mitscherlich, according to
which, bodies composed of different elements, but of an equal
number of atoms similarly combined, assume the same crystalline,
form. MM. Rose, Bonsdorff, and Trolle-Wachtmeister, have
already profited by the light which this discovery has thrown on
mineralogy, and proved that the species called pyroxene, amphi-
bole, and garnet, contain a great number of different compounds,
formed in an analogous manner ; so that if a species, according
to the received definition, be composed of combinations similar,
in their elements and in their proportions, the three crystalline,
forms above-mentioned must contain a great number of mineral~,
ogical species; for most of the pyroxenes, amphiboles, and
garnets from different localities, differ in the number and pro-
portion of their elements, although those elements are combined
in the same manner. However, there certainly is no mineralogist,
who would not be shocked at the idea of making a particular,
species of every amphibole or garnet differently compused, and,
yet, on the other hand, they cannot with any greater propriety.
be considered as identical. What, therefore, is to be done?
I do not believe that our knowledgeis yet sufficiently advanced
to enable us to give a satisfactory answer to this question; and
hence arises the difficulty of a first attempt to treat mineralogy
according to chemical principles. If, on one hand, it be true
that two garnets, for instance, having no other common element,
but silica, cannot be considered as of the same species, it 1s not.
less so on the other, that they may differ in an infinity of ways ;.
and, as we must not assume as identical what is not so, nor,
establish endless varieties, we have to seek between these two.
extremes that just medium which is by no means easily found.
A mean, however, we must adopt, but on the condition of aban-
doning it for a better, when the further progress of the science
shall have enabled us to do so.
It is now clear, therefore, that the hitherto generally received
definition of a mineralogical species, the same elements combined
in the same proportions, whether we add Huiiy’s expression, with
the same limited crystalline forms, or not, can no longer be
admitted in every case in which isomorphous substitutions inter-
fere ; and, till a generally applicable principle shall haye been.
discovered, we must adopt a particular mode of viewing those
cases. On one hand, the crystalline form, on the other, the
formula of composition mark them as a group of combinations,
which, by their greater or less mutual conformity, perfectly

1826.}, affecting Chemico-Mineralogical Systems. 383

resemble the relation of genus and species in zoological classifi-
cation. The genus is determined by the chemical formula and
the geometrical form ; the species by theelements. For greater
clearness, let us take an example from the garnet. Its crystal-
line form is generally known, and the formula of its composition,
according to M. Trolle-Wachtmeister (R signifying radical), is

ere ere

garnet. M. Wachmeister has proved besides, that R may be
lime, magnesia, protoxide of iron, or manganese, either one of
them alone, or several, or even all of them together ; and that

R may be either alumina, or deutoxide of iron, sometimes alone,
sometimes combined with each other. Not less, therefore, than
eight species, or prototypes of different garnets, must result
from these principles, and their mixture produces such numerous
varieties that it would be in vain to attempt to distinguish them.
I shall give a second example from another species of mineral, in
which isomorphism 1s less Mt ero met with. According to
analysis, chabasie is composed of CS* + 3 AS* + 6 Aq, anda
small portion of lime which they contain is represented by pot-
ash. q have lately analyzed a chabasie, given me under the
name of Levyine, in which a small part of théilime was replaced
by potash and soda. M. Arfwedson analyzed a Scotch chabasie,
in which almost all the lime was replaced by soda and potash.
It is clear, therefore, that some chabasies chiefly contain lime,
and others soda ; that in all, the bases lime, soda, and potash,
may replace one another in variable proportions, and thus
chabasies from different localities may be differently composed ;
but nevertheless they retain the same general formule of com-
position. According to M. Beudant, crystals belonging to the
thomboidal system have, in their isomorphous substitutions,
angles similar but not absolutely identical (whilst in the regular
system it is always the reverse) ; so that, after having accurately
measured the angles of a dolomite, we can determine the relative
quantity of lime and of magnesia, in the carbonate of lime and
of magnesia, from the measurement of their angles taken sepa-
rately, which are very similar, but not perfectly equal. Ifsuch
be also the case with the bisilicate of soda, lime, and potash, in
the rhomboidal crystals of chabasie, it is clear that mineralogists,
accustomed to measure crystals accurately, will find chabasies
with different angles ; and it would be as absurd to make dis-
tinct species of them, as of dolomites composed of lime and
magnesia in different proportions. I presume that the new
name of Levyine, given to the chabasie which I examined, was
derived from a similar circumstance. Here then we have genera,
species, and varieties, or if the word genera be objected to, we

384 M. Berzeliuson Isomorphismas’ > [May

have species, subspecies, and varieties. What I have said of
garnet and chabasie applies equally to pyroxene, amphibole,
mica, &c.

But these ideas cannot be applied to general systematic clas-
sification, without producing a deviation from the usual method.
Certain general formule of chemical composition do not present
the same crystalline form ; for instance, felspar and albite have
the same formula, but not the same crystalline form, and must
consequently be considered as more distinct species than two
garnets or amphiboles of different composition.

I shall now endeavour to show that the difficulties may, in
great measure, be removed, by means of a change in the che-
mical classification. Ina former essay, I demonstrated that the
products of the mineral kingdom are best arranged in the order
of the electro-chemical relations of their elements, and that they
may be placed according to their most electro-positive, or
electro-negative principle. Each of these methods has its
advantages, and may be equally well employed. In my essay
on Chemical Mineralogy, Ihave grouped the families according
to the electro-positive elements, because most of them, in their
combinations with the electro-negative elements, impress on
them particular characters, which are preserved, more or less
perfectly, in all minerals in which they exist; such are lead,
copper, cobalt, nickel, iron, barytes, &c.; and since these com-
pounds are often the objects of labours, whose end it is to
extract from them a like electro-positive substance, it appeared
to me that the facility of applying the science to practice, which
results from the circumstance that the combinations of these
metals form separate classes, would equal the advantages of the
other mode of classification, which, however, is not to be
despised, and in which all the metallic sulphurets, for instance,
as well as all the silicates, are arranged together. At that time
the difficulties arising from the changes between isomorphous
bodies were not foreseen. On considering the modifications
which that circumstance, now fully established, must introduce.
in systematic arrangement, it is immediately evident, that where
isomorphous changes most frequently occur, classification, if
not impossible, must at least be more difficult. The excelient
labours of M. Mitscherlich show that these substitutions may
take place between electro-negative, as well as electro-positive
bodies, without changing the figure of the crystals; but in the
combinations presented by the mineral kingdom, frequent
changes occur between the most common positive bodies ;
whilst among the negative, they have only been discovered
between the phosphoric and ersenic acids, bodies of rarer
occurrence. If negative isomorphous bodies, with sulphur, or
silica, were as frequently met with in the mineral kingdom,
either classification would present the same difficulties: there

1826.}) = affecting Chemico-Mineralogical Systems. 385:

must be less, therefore, in arranging bodies according to their
electro-negative principles. However, when we attempt to place
compounds that are liable to vary from the isomorphism of their
bases, we meet the same difficulties in arranging them together
as in the mode of classing them according to the most electro-
passe elements ; but. the difficulties are of less importance.
have shown in my former essay, moreover, not only that the
electro-negative disposition has many advantages, but also that,
all the oxygenated compounds being in that method arranged
under oxygen, the first class in mineralogy, that which is purely
inorganic, is thereby subdivided into two parts, one containing the
oxidated minerals, and the other those which are not oxidated.

In all former systems, including those of Werner and Haiuy,
attempts have been made to preserve the advantage resulting
from a classification according to the positive element. Each
metal, properly so called, constitutes in those systems a family
which embraces all its combinations. We must renounce this
advantage, in a classification according to the negative prin-
ciple. More than one mineralogist, perhaps, will not like to
seek for iron, copper, or silver, in several families in which they
are found dispersed. I must, therefore, show how the classifi-
cation according to the positive element may be adapted to the
isomorphous changes. The compounds of garnet, tourmaline,
pyroxene, &c. may be placed under several bases just as any
metal may be placed underits sulphate, &c.; and thus the names
of alum, garnet, or tourmaline, no longer denote mineralogical
species, but merely indicate modes of combination ; still, how-
ever, the exchange of bases, amongst compounds in indefinite
proportions, throws some doubt on the place that should be
assigned to such or such a garnet; and sometimes the same
individual may, with equal propriety, be arranged. in more
places than one, which always shows a vicious principle in clas-
sification. Thus, adopt what method we will, we cannot, if we
follow the principle strictly, avoid meeting with something which
shocks us by its novelty; but 1 must add that we are not to.
reject a thing as false merely because it is new.

It seems then to be demonstrated, first, that in the present
state of our knowledge, it is impossible to determine satisfacto-
rily, with regard to minerals in which isomorphous substitution
prevails, those that compose mineralogical species; and
secondly, that as the interchanges occur chiefly amongst the
electro-positive principles of minerals, their classification,
according to the most electro-positive principle, cannot be-
employed without great difficulty.

' Ina system which classes minerals according to their most
electro-negative element, compounds in which isomorphous
bases replace one another may be naturally arranged near each
other, and it is of less consequence whether we separate the
New Series, vow. x1. 2c

386 Analyses of Books. [May,

minerals into different species or not, provided we know what
is not perfectly identical, and that, in the particular descrip-
tion of the system, we indicate the limits, and demonstrate that
those species may vary without end. When we strictly adhere
to electro-negative classification, the compounds, especially in
the great families, arrange themselves in so striking a manner in
the order of their external characters, that they could not be
more completely so classed even according to the system of
Werner, in which the analogy of the external characters is the
predominant principle; a circumstance which certainly must
materially favour the adoption of this method. ;

I shall now attempt a mineralogical arrangement according to
the negative elements, preserving the great division of minerals
into two classes, one containing those of inorganic, the other
those of organic composition. ‘The first comprehends eighteen.
families, which succeed each other from the most positive to the
most negative, in the following order: iron, copper, bismuth,
silver, mercury, palladium, platina, osmium, gold, tellurium,
antimony, arsenic, carbon, azote, selenium, sulphur, oxygen, and.
chlorine. The eight first are composed of only one or two
species ; but the rest contain a great number, and under oxygen
all the oxidated minerals are arranged. It has not appeared to:
me to be useful or convenient to subdivide these eighteen fami-
lies, and the distinction between oxidated and non-oxidated
bodies follows of course. The place assigned to chlorine, which:
comes after oxygen, is a deviation from that strict order, which’
may be defended on the ground that chlorine expels oxygen
even from the strongest bases, and is itself expelled by oxygen
only from the weakest ; and in the acids which it forms, chlorine’
is positive with respect to oxygen, and consequently should
precede it. I have placed it, however, after oxygen, because:
this last family terminates with salts, and that. of chlorine is:
almost wholly composed of salts. Should iodine be found to
belong to the mineral kingdom, I should place it between oxygen

and chlorine.
(To be continued.)

ArtTIcLE XII.
ANALYSES oF Books.

An Introduction to the Study of the Laws of Chemical Combina-
tion and the Atomic Theory, drawn up for the Use of Students.
By Edward Turner, MD. FRSE. Lecturer on Chemistry, and —
Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh. —»

Tue author of this compendium has executed a task for
which both the teacher and the tyro are indebted to him.: He’

1626.}. Dr. Turner on ihe Atomic Theory. 387

justly remarks that the doctrine of which he treats has been
neelectéd from “ a confused notion that it is a subject of great
difficulty ; that it is connected intimately with hypothetical
réasoning ; and that, consequently, it is neither a necessary
object of study, nor of sufficient importance to give a fair return

for the labour bestowed in comprehending it.”—(Preface, p. iv.)

- Dr. Turner has divided his work into six sections; 1. On the
laws Of chemical combination; 2. Views of Mr. Dalton on the
atomic theory; 3.M. Gay Lussac’s theory of volumes ; 4. Pecu-
liar views of Prof. Berzelius; 5. On the hydracids; 6. Table of
atomic weights.

‘In the first section there are a few statements which call for
observation, and we are sure that Dr. Turner will not be dis-
pleased if we should offer some remarks, tending, as we
trust, to render his work, in a few instances, and only a few,
more correct. In the first place (p. 11), in speaking of the
compounds of sulphur and oxygen, the oxygen is termed the
“variable ingredient.” Now we have no objection to this term,
provided it mean nothing more than that, assuming sulphur as a
standard, the quantity of the oxygen varies in different com-
pounds ; but we are apprehensive that the learner might misunder-
stand the phrase, and not perceive that the sulphur is the variable
ingredient, if we were to assume oxygen as the standard.

‘In p. 19, Dr. Turner alludes to a part of the subject which
has been much discussed, and upon which it is extremely diffi-
cult to decide satisfactorily ; it is, perhaps, even impossible to
performa conclusive experiment; weallude to the action of water
upon those chlorides which are soluble in it, and the nature of
the changes whichthey suffer. Dr. Turner asserts with, we think,
rather too little hesitation, that when 56 of chloride of calcium
are “ put into water, one proportion of that fluid is decomposed,
and both its elements are employed in reproducing muriate of
lime.” Now this is, we conceive, begging the question; for we
have'no proof of the existence of such a salt as muriate of lime;
there is no improbability, @ priori, that chloride of calcium should
exist as such in solution; the question is resolvable into two
cases; viz. whether when an aqueous solution of muriatic acid
is added to an aqueous solution of lime, chloride of calcium and
water are formed; or whether when chloride of calciumis dissolved
in water, muriate of lime is produced, as Dr. Turner states, and
as we believe, to be the case, by the decomposition of water
whole question is, therefore, one of probabilities, and that may
fairly be assumed to be the true explanation which involves the
fewer difficulties.

We have said that our view of the subject coincides with that
of Dr. Turner, and as we do not remember to have seen the case
pe pact, on the grounds which support our opinion, we shall

e the opportunity of stating it. hi i
2c2

388 : Analyses of Books... [May

Let us suppose that when chloride of potassium is. dissolved.
in water, an atom of the fluid is at once decomposed, and muriate
of potash formed ;. when tartaric acid is added to the solution,
bitartrate of potash is precipitated, and muriatic acid remains in
solution. In this case the decumposition of water only occurs;
there is no recomposition, and the question is merely, does, the
decomposition take place before the addition of the tartaric acid,
oris it determined by the presence of tartaric acid, and on.account
of its affinity for potash ? On the other hand, let it be granted that
when the aqueous solutions of muriatic acid and potash are
mixed to saturation, we have chloride of potassium. in solution ;.
on this supposition water must be formed by the union of the
hydrogen of the acid with the oxygen of the potash; and this.
supposition is, perhaps, quite as probable as that, when chloride
of potassium is added to water that fluid is decomposed. Now,
however, to the solution of chloride of potassium which, has been
formed by the composition of water, add solution of tartaric
acid, and then water must be decomposed, for potash is formed.
and bitartrate of potash precipitated. In this case, therefore,
when employing perfectly similar ingredients, we must suppose
both the composition and decomposition of water, and admit the
latter to be effected by predisposing affinity, a doctrine which is
now exploded ; it appears to us, therefore, that simplicity is
greatly in favour of the change which supposes that all chlorides
when dissolved in water become muriates, for then only one de-
composition occurs in circumstances which require a composition
and decomposition, on the idea that chlorides remain such when
dissolved in water.

The next observation which we would make is suggested by
what we findin p.20. Dr. Turnerconsiders that the only exception.
to the regular law of combination is, “‘ when one proportion of
one body combines with one proportion and a half, or two pro-

ortions and a half of another body.” Now, as it is proved, in
p- 34, that these compounds form no exception, it would, we
think, have been better to have introduced the explanation at
once; there is, however, one mode of showing that the existence
of sesquisalts forms no exception, and to which Dr. Turner has _
not adverted, viz. that they are compounds of an atom of a salt
composed of one atom of acid. and one of base, with one atom of
a bisalt.

Dr. Tumer has well pointed out a difference between the
theory of volumes and atoms: he observes (p. 47), “ The theory
of volumes has very considerable analogy to Mr. Dalton’s law of
multiple proportions. The former is indeed, to a certain extent,
a consequence of the latter; for if one body unites with another
in several proportions, the quantities of the variable ingredient
will stand in the same relation to one another, when expressed
by volume, as they do by weight. But there is one remarkable.

-1826.] Dr. Turner on the Atoinic Theory. 389

difference. The weights of the two elements of a compound
have no apparent dependence on one another. Thus 6 carbon
and 8 oxygen’ form carbonic oxide; 8 oxygen and 14 nitrogen
form nitrous oxide; 8 is no multiple by any whole number of 6,
nor 14 of 8. But the elements of a compound are always united
by volume in the ratio of 1 to 1, 1 to 2, 1 to 3, and so on. This
distinction is certainly very obvious; but still there is otherwise
such a similarity in the two laws, that the peculiar nature of the
ultimate particles of matter which gives rise to the one, must
surely be the cause of the other. It is to be hoped, therefore,
that the connecting link will soon be supplied, and one fact of
great interest has been already determined, which may ultimately
be of use in accounting for this difference.”

In p. 59, we observe an error of the press which it is very
‘material to correct. The hydrate of potash is stated to be
composed of »

| Potash 48, whose oxygen is 8
Water 2, ditto

Here 2is evidently a misprint for 9.

- Some good observations are made on Berzelius’s law of com-
binations; these are followed by remarks on the hydracids,
a term to which we have a strong dislike, as denoting the exist-
ence of an acidifying principle, which we do not admit ; it is also,
-we think, not quite correctly stated, that the radicals (query,
tadicles) of the hydracids “ agree in possessing strong affinity
for the pure metallic substances, with most of which they form
very distinctand definite compounds; ” the radicle of hydrocyani¢
acid is either azote or carbon, the former does not combine with

netals at all, and the union which carbon forms with a few of
them can hardly be considered as the result of a strong affinity ;
and no definite compound of any metal and carbon has as yet,
we believe, been discovered.

In concluding these observations, we beg to repeat our recom~
mendation of this work, advising Dr. Turner, in a future
edition, to refer to Dr. Wollaston’s very curious paper on the
Finite Extent of the Atmosphere, for some arguments in sup-
port, of atomic combination.

390 Pagan of ronson Societies. {May,

ait sshsoAianeae “SOTEE
Proceedings of Philosophical Societies.

1 «

ROYAL SOCIETY.

April 6.—W. C. Milne, Esq. the Rev: Dr. Nicol, and R. Keith
Douglas, Esq. were respectively admitted Fellows of the Society ;
and Mr. Weaver’s name ordered to be inserted in its printed lists.

A paper was read, entitled, “‘ Observations made with an

‘Invariable Pendulum at Greenwich, and at Port Bowen in the
Arctic Circle ; by Lieut. H. Forster, RN. FRS.” The roinetth |

of the earth deduced from these observations i TD oe aio

_ April 13.—R. I. Murchison, Esq. ‘Sec. GS. was admitted a
Fellow of the Society ; and the following papers were rea .

On the Diurnal Variation of the Needle at Port Bowen; by
Capt. W. E. Parry, RN. ERS. and Lieut. H, Forster, RN. ERS.

ii he diurnal variation of the needle at Port Bowen is stated to
be never less than 1°, and sometimes to amount to 7° or 8°: the
‘observers have recognized a determinate connexion beam it
and the positions of the sun and moon.

On the Dip of the Needle at different Latitudes’ between
Woolwich and Port Bowen; by Lieut. Forster. .

On the Magnetism imparted to Iron’ by Rotation, at Port
‘Bowen ; by the Same: with Remarks by 8. H. ‘Christie,: oot 9
MA. ERS.

April 20.—John Sharpe, Esq. was admitted a Fellow: of the
Society ; and a paper was read, entitled, ‘* A Formula ’express-
ing the Decrement of the Law of Human ri cote gd h «tf
Thomas Young, MD. For. Sec. RS.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL- INSTITUTION OF GREAT .
BRITAIN, AT THE FRIDAY-EVENING MEETINGS,

April 7.—Mr. Faraday came forward in the lecture-room, and
advanced yarious experiments and arguments in opposition to a
generally received opinion, that all solid and fluid bodies in
vacuo, or surrounded by gaseous or vaporous mediums, give off, or
are surrounded by, a vapour of their own, whatever be their tem-
perature. His object was to show that a limit existed to this
production of vapour, and that by diminishing temperature and
those causes which favour the production of vapour, not merely
was the tension of the vapour diminished, but ultimately such a
state attained, that the previously formed vapour would be con-
densed, or if removed, no further portions would be produced.
He first stated Dr. Wollaston’s proof of the finite extent of our
atmosphere ; and considering its state at the extreme limit, con-
cluded, that ¢ any change of circumstances by which the elastic

1826.] Astronomical Society. 391

force should there be diminished, (and amongst others, increase
of gravity was pointed out,) would cause perfect condensation of
that portion of the atmosphere. He then referred to another
force, beside gravity, which he considered equally efficient in
overcoming the elasticity of an atmosphere reduced to a certain
degree of tension, and causing its entire condensation: this was
the attraction of cohesion, and many facts and experiments were
referred to in illustration of it. These reasonings were then
applied to various bodies with which we are acquainted, and the
conclusion drawn, that some of these, as silica, alumina, iron,
and other bodies, sometimes supposed to exist in the state of
_ yapour in the atmosphere, cannot take up that state under ordinary
circumstances, and that other bodies, as zinc, mercury, &c. pro-
bably had their limits of vaporization within the range of dimi-
_ nished temperature which we can command.
__ Mr. Cuthbert exhibited in the library his beautiful American
microscope, in which concave mirrors of 0°6 and 0°3 of an inch
being used, astonishing magnifying power was obtained, with
extreme distinctness, and absence of all colour.

Mr. Parker laid various fine castings of the new alloy, called
_ Mosaic gold, upon the table, for the inspection of the members.

April 14,—Dr. Granville placed the whole of his fine speci-
mens of Egyptian and other mummies upon the lecture-table,
and explained to the members the various facts elicited, and
conclusions: drawn, from an examination of that presented to
- him by Sir Archibald Edmonston ; for an account of which, see
-yol. ix. of the Annals, New Series, p. 462, and vol. xi. p, 218.
_ April 21.—Dr. Harwood read part of an Essay on the Natural
History of the Elephant. It was illustrated by Mr. Deville’s
enormous cast taken from the head of the late elephant at
Exeter Change, by the skull of an African elephant, by various
-articles used in the capture of elephants, and by numerous
smaller preparations, &c. and fine drawings.

A beautiful specimen of modern illuminated writing was laid
- upon the library table.

ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY.

March 10.—A paper was read, “On an Appearance hitherto
unnoticed in the Nebula of Orion,” communicated by the
Astronomer Royal. This appearance was detected by means of
Mr. Ramage’s 25-feet reflector, which is now placed up at the
Royal Observatory: It is well known that among a variety of
stars, which appear at the same time in the field of view of the
telescope with this nebula, there are four very bright ones,
which form a trapezium, and at a little distance, three others
nearly in a straight line. These three stars, Mr. Pond observes,
are neither situated on the edge of the nebula, nor are they
parallel to the edge; but they seem to be insulated from the

392 Proceedings of Philosophical: Societies. [May,

nebula, the light of which retires from them in a semicircular
form, as if they had either absorbed or repelled the light from
their immediate vicinity. iA

The same appearance, the Astronomer Royal remarks, is
observable in the trapezium, round the four stars of which the
light has also receded analogously, leaving them on a compara-
tively dark ground. He conjectures that the stars have been the
immediate cause of the disappearance of the light; and therefore
he wishes to draw the attention of astronomers to the phenome-
non, as it seems to deserve a marked attention.

' The Astronomer Royal has noticed a similar appearance, still
more decidedly, in another part of the same nebula, at’ some
minutes’ distance from the trapezium. ; ;

2, A communication from Colonel Mark Beaufoy, a member
of the Council of this Society, was read. It contains,

Ist. Observed transits of the moon and of moon-culminating
stars, over the middle wire of his transit instrument at Bushey
Heath in sidereal time. These were observed in the course of
1825, and amount to 322. i

2dly. Occultations of stars by the moon, in number 6.

3dly. Observations of two lunar eclipses in 1825. :

4thly. Observations of eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites, in 1825,
at Bushey Heath. These amount to 25, and the results are
given both in Bushey and Greenwich mean time.

There was also read a communication from Major J. A. Hodg-
son, of the 6lst Bengal Native Infantry, Revenue Surveyor-
General, residing at Futty Ghur, on the Ganges. This letter
records 75 observations of the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites,
made at Futty Ghur (latitude 27° 21’ 35” N.),.1n the autumn of
1824, and spring of 1825. Some of these observations were
made by Major Hodgson himself; and others under his superin-
tendance, by young men who are his apprentices in the Revenue
Survey Department. The names of the several observers are
given:—each observation has its appropriate meteorological
indications registered: and the natures, powers, and qualities,
of the telescopes employed, are respectively described. These
observations, compared with corresponding observations of the
‘same phenomena in any places whose longitudes have been
‘accurately ascertained, will serve to determine the longitude of
Major Hodgson’s observatory.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. ?
March 17—A paper was read, entitled, “On the Strata of
the Plastic Clay Formation exhibited in the Cliffs between
Christchurch Head, Hampshire, and Studiand Bay, Dorsetshire ;
‘by Charles Lyell, Esq. FGS, &c. ccs
* The strata of sand’ and clay which form the subject of this
communication are referable exclusively to :the: Plastic-clay

1826.] - - Geological Society. 393

formation. They occupy an interval in the coast of about 16
miles in extent, between the London clay of Highcliff on the
east of Muddiford and the chalk of the Isle of Purbeck. A
coloured section of the strata exhibited in these cliffs accompa-
nies the paper. The author first described in detail the cliffs of
Christchurch, or Hengistbury Head, which consist of sand and
loam, often much charged with bituminous matter, and contain-
ing large concretions of ferruginous sandstone and clay iron-
stone, disposed in fine parallel layers, in which, as well as in the
sand and loam, occur black-flint pebbles, lignite, and flattened
impressions of fossil trees. Below these strata are dark bitumi-’
nous clays, alternating with red and brown sands, with occasional
layers of black-flint pebbles. After the outcrop of the above
strata, the cliffs are low, and about three miles from Muddiford,
are composed solely of diluvium. When they rise again in
height, their direction corresponds with the line of bearing of
the strata, so that the same beds are continuously exposed for
eight miles, as far as the mouth of Poole Harbour.

These beds consist of fine white sand, pinkish sand, and thinly
laminated argillaceous marles, containing occasionally much
vegetable matter; and the whole series exceeding 150 feet in
thickness. The section is interrupted for a space of 21 miles
by the mouth of Poole Harbour, and the bars of sand on each side
of it. But in the cliffs near Studland, the strata are again seen,
consisting principally of yellow and purplish sand, white sand
alternating with thinly laminated white clay, and sand with fer-
ruginous concretions passing into sandstone and pipe clay.

he junction of the chalk with the superior strata is very
indistinctly exposed, but a thin bed of striated soft chalk-marl
rests immediately upon the chalk, as is the case in Alum Bay.
The author concludes with observations on the diluvium of this
district, composed chiefly of chalk flints, and he infers from its
local characters, both here, and in the rest of Hampshire, as
well as in the district between the North and South Downs, that
it owes its origin, in this part of England, to causes much more
local in their operation than those generally assigned. He
examines how far the phenomena attending its distribution are
consistent with the supposition, that the diluvium was formed
in consequence of the protrusion of the inferior through the
superior strata, along the anticlinal axis which now separates the
tertiary basins of London and Hampshire. Admitting that this
elevation took place when all the strata were beneath the level
of the sea, Mr. Lyell endeavours to show, that the returning
waters, when the land was raised to its present position above
the sea, would have strewed the debris of the older over the
newer formations, as we now find it; while those of the more
recent would not cover, except in inconsiderable quantities, the
more ancient strata; and that the marked dissimilarity between

394 Scientifie Notices—Chemistry. [May,

the diluvium of the Wealds of Kent and Sussex, and that of
Hampshire and the neighbourhood of London, may thus be
accounted for. As the freshwater formations in Hampshire and
the Isle of Wight, as well as the Plastic and London clays, are
overed by deep beds of a similar gravel, consisting of chalk-
ints, the author states several geological facts to prove, that
these more recent formations existed when the chalk and tertiary
strata were elevated, and, notwithstanding their difference of
inclination, even when the strata of Alum Bay assumed their
‘vertical position, and consequently they were all covered indis-
criminately by a similar stratum of diluvium.
| April 7.—A translation was read of a letter from M. de Gim-
bernat, of Geneva, principally upon Sulphate of Soda, to G. B.
Greenough, Esq. FGS. &c.
‘A paper, entitled, “‘On the Geology of the Valley of the St.
Laurence ;” by John J. Bigsby, MD. FGS. was read in part.
. April 21.—The reading of Dr. Bigsby’s paper was continued,

2 °

ARTICLE XIV.
SCIENTIFIC NOTICES. caidas

CHEMISTRY.
1. Analysis of the Soot from a Wood Fire.

The following results were obtained by M. Henri Braconnot,
from an examination of the soot from wood: ;

1. Ulmin, precisely similar to that produced artificially

by saw-dust and potash, estimated at.......... 30°20

2. Animalised matter, very soluble in water, and insolu-
blavinidlcohel! }: 507. 04109. WAL, SHED TI SRG . 20°00

3. Carbonate of lime, mixed with some traces of mag-

hesia's!. 20 eait PIL Been DIG Te wa eee) 14066
4. Water....... pA b PAE OM EY SHY veeee 12:50
5. Acetate of lime. ...... Gah Ke Pe RTE ae Ue Ue
6, Sulphate of lime. . ........0eeee00. ob agid VEO b catty -BAOO
Vs, Acbtate of potash... cereus wale vie Celeb gy ad
. 8, Carbonaceous matter insoluble in alkalies. ........ 3°85
9. Ferruginous phosphate of lime....... 4, x sted eign ap a SO
10. Silica. .... BH OOO HW UN IOS ak Sbidede ot echet, ghti Ona
11. Acetate of magnesia. .......... CoOL Atel SRW. Eras
12. Peculiar acrid and bitter principle (asboline) about.. 0°50
13. Chloride of potassium.......... SAO SW 8 HOSE

14. Acetate of ammonia, estimated at ...........+6.. 0°20
46; Avetateof irons). i.e ee eee)
| - 100/00

(Annales de Chimie.)

41826.) Scientific Notzces— Miscellaneous. 895

Th nS 2, Analysis.of Lamp-black. : greeted
The same chemist has analysed lamp-black, which gave him

Fagan ilo ME yebi ae pln ete ey il pag east 1°
sie pve pe mig baer peperion obpsind yt

Resin, similar to that found in a fossil state near London,*

and examined by Thomson ....+.++eeesee-ees wai gant
Sulphate of ammonia. ....... Sue eusl? WALL Matsa Marae
Asphaltum, or bitumen of Judea. ...-+sereeeeeererees, 5
Sulphate of lime. ....-++++-0+- ence, Seo sage fer for meee
Quartzose Sand ...... eee eeeeceerecerrerensserecceees 06
MOT SEGUE asc acecacsins. nae Suniel WAI ABE VERA UNND! ROMS
Sulphate of potash .......-+.+0+0- Ladsbasmpueraniusametae

Phosphate of lime, very ferruginous. ...+eeererseeyeeee 0°3
Chloride of potassium, ..-..seesererererreareerseres Trace

Sady ' 100-00

. M.Braconnot concludes from these analyses, ‘that all soots
contain essentially several sulphates.. The presence ofa notable
quantity of sulphate of ammonia in lamp-black, renders that
substance unfit to be used (as has sometimes heen done) in the
reduction of metals, when it is wished to obtain them pure, and
not.at all sulphuretted,”—(Annales de Chimie.)

Siisthieds | MiscELLANEOUS.

Yai

ere 3. Alkaline, digestive Lozenges.
_M. d’Arcet recommends the following formula for the prepa-

«!

‘vation. of anti-acid lozenges, for dyspeptic patients, instead of
those commonly prepared with magnesia, the frequent use of
which, he feared, might lead to the formation of urinary calculi.
M. d’Arcet states that he has found great relief from these
lozenges in his own case, and that they are now in general
wequest in Paris, Lyons, &c.

‘R Bicarbonate of soda, dry, and in fine powder. .......+ 51
“White sugar, in fine powder .....--.++-5-- due acne ee
“* Mucilage of gum tragacanth, prepared with water .... q 8.
‘Essential oil of mint (menthe) pure, and recently pre-

oF OV MMTED ceases cecage Givas see bs os <a ata cme 68 MV.

The bicarbonate of soda and the sugar are put into a very dry
bottle, and well mixed by agitation ; the mixture is then trans-
ferred to a marble mortar or slab, and rubbed up with the muci-
lage and essential oil, till the whole is thoroughly incorporated
into a paste, and then divided into lozenges, which, when dry,

ow

* For an account of the Highgate resin, see Annals of Philosophy, vol. ii, ps 9.

$96 “Scientific Notices» Miscellaneous. [May,

should weigh each about 16 grs. . As the lozenges are liable to
attract moisture, they should be kept in well-closed bottles.

Bicarbonate of soda is used in preference to the carbonate,
as less alkaline, and disgusting to the palate, and incapable of
injuring the stomach, which the more caustic salt might, per-
haps, do. a a
In proof of the perfect innocence of these lozenges, M. d’Arcet
states that the workmen, who pound and sift the carbonate of
soda in a manufactory, where it is extracted from the rough
material, and where nearly a ton of the salt is produced per diem,
suffer no injury whatever from it, though, according to his cal-
culation, they must’ swallow daily, from the fine powder floating
in the air‘of the workshop, ‘at Jeast as much alkali as would be
equivalent to 200 lozenges, and one-third of itin the state of car-
bonate of soda, On inquiring of some of them, who had followed
the business for six or seven years, whether they experienced any
ill effects from the nature of their employment, they replied, no
other than that they were sooner hungry and more hungry than
the workmen in the other parts of the manufactory, who were
not exposed to the fine alkaline dust ; they said also that their
habit was generally rather constipated than relaxed, but that
they felt no consequent inconvenience. ~ iN

M. d’Arcet concludes his note as follows :— I am persuaded
that the alkaline lozenges, prepared with the bicarbonate of
soda, are preferable to magnesia lozenges, and the absorbent

owders, which have been long employed to neutralize acidity
in the stomach; and I hope that their use will procure relief to
those numerous persons who, laborious from duty or inclination,
allow too short an interval between their meals and studies, and
thus impair the functions of the stomach, and too often accele-
‘vate the ruin of their health, and consequently that of thei moral
faculties.’”—(Annales de Chimie.)

Note.—The proportion of alkali to the sugar in the above
prescription appears very small; it may probably be much in-
creased with advantage ; as to the quantity of essential oil, it
may be increased or diminished, according to the palate of the
patient. It may not be useless to observe, that the bicarbonate
and carbonate of soda of chemists answer, respectively, to the
carbonate and sub-carbonate of the English Pharmacopeias.—

Ed,

1826.) Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journal, 397>

ARTICLE XV.

METEOROLOGICAL TABLE.

i
14 b BAROMETER, THERMOMETER, '
1826, | Wind.|. Max. | Min.. Max. | Min. | Evap. | Rain.
2d Mon.
Feb. 11N Ej} 30°00 29°99 45 40 — —~
— - 2§ WS 30°00 29°88 50 41 _
S 30°05 29°89 58 40 — —
E} 30°05 30°05 48 40 _
51S W 30°05 29:73 Aj 43 —_ 16
6S Wi 3017 29'73 51 40 _ Ol
7) WwW 30°51 30°17 47 24 —
3 S 30°51 30°44, 46 23 —
QIN E| 30°44 30°40 45 20 _
E 30°40 30°31 38 29 _
_E}. 30°31 30°24 45 30...) °48:],
30°30 30°24. 49 35 —
13/S W| 30°24 30°12 48 389 — 05°
S 30°12 30°11 AT 45 _ 17
; i) 30°00 29°92.. 54 40 — 02
16] § 29°92 29°55 52 45 _ 1!
17158 Wi 29:90 29°55 48 32 = 16>
18/5 Wi 29:90 29°74 44 of _— 01
iptoi W)| 30°00 29°74 55 42 _ 23
WwW 30°46 30°00 45 37 °A7 06
QIN W| 3646 30°14 52 40 — 15
2218 Wj 30°14 30°06 53 42 = 13
23 W |: 36:32 30°14 50 5 _— =
24, W 30°32 30°16 51 36 _ 28
W 30°58 30°32 54 37 —
26) W 30°58 30°46 40 36 _
7N W| 30°46 30°35 42 36 —_
28IN Wj 30°35 30°20 55 46 “48

30°58 | 29°55 | 58 | 20 | 143 | 154

The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours,
beginning at 9 A. M. on the day indicated in the first column. A dash denotes that
the result is included in the next following observation.

398° Mr, Howard’s Meteorological Journal, [Mav,’

REMARKS.

Second Month.—1. Drizzly. 2. Fine. 3. Overcast: rainy. 4. Cloudy.
5. Morning fine: afternoon cloudy: night rainy. 6. Cloudy: windy. 1. Very fine
day. 8. Morning foggy, with white frost. 9—13. Fine, 14. Drizzly. 15. Ditto.
16. Fine. 17. Showery. 18, Cloudy. 19, 20. Fine. 21. Showery. 22. Fines
23. Drizzly. 24—28. Fine, .

-

Winds: NE, 2; E,1; SE,2; S,6; SW, 8; W, 6; NW, 3.
Barometer: Mean height

For the month. ..... CCCP eee Rese ee seHPeseere® 30147 inches.

Thermometer: Mean height
For the fionthi... subs des cvscvios coscsbbd sduiescetisee 42°589°
Evaporation .. .,ccccccccecccccsecccevcccssensecctessvecyeosesess 1°43 ins

Rain. Coe ree RTH SE EH EHS OTOPOU SESS EH SEEDED TELE eeOOEBD ELIS LESS 1°54.

Laboratory, Stratford, Fourth Month, 24, 1826, R. HOWARD,

1826.} | Mr. Howard's Meteorological Journal. - 399°

METEOROLOGIGAL TABLE.

ane ee :
Barometer. THERMOMETER,
1826, Wind. Max. Min. Max. | Min. | Evap. | Rains
3d Mon.
March 15 ~W!| 30-20 29°95 52 48 _
25 Wi 29°95 20°87 55 50 —_ 86 *
38 W] 2937 | 29:84 | 50 | 40 Joe 15
4S W| 30:06 29°87 56 38 — 15:
5S W)| 30:30 30°06 42 30 —
6S W) 30:06 30°02 52 37 — 07
7S Wi 30°22 30°02 54 48 48 05
sis E!] 30:30 30°22 52 46 — 02
9| E 30 46 30°30 67 46 —_
10; E 30°48 3046 | 70 40 —
1118S EE} 30°59 30°48 50 30 —
12| E 30°59 30°58 42 29 43
13| E 30°58 30°18 43 29 ~— 10
14S E| 30-18 30°05 54 39 — 10
ISN Wi) 30°54 30°05 54 30 —
16} N 30°55 30°34 50 25 at ,
17N W| 30°56 30°41 48 24 —
1sN W| 30°41 30°08 53 29 —
19N W| 30°14 30°08 50 31 AZ 09
20N WI 30:16 30°14 51 30 —
2iN E| 3014 | 3004 | 44 | 36 | —
22N EE} 30:04 29°83 45 30 —_
23.N E| 29°83 29°70 40 33 —_ 37
24N_ E! - 29°90 29°72 40 34 — soon
25N E| 29°93 | 2990 | 46 | 34 | —
26N E| 30°14 29°93 42 30 _ —
27N E} 30°13 30:02 46 31 48
28) W 30°02 29°80 52 42 —
29N WI 30°21 29°80 50 30 _
30.N WI 30°49 30°21 50 24 _
3IIN W| 30°52 30°49 54 27 33

Wats; 8 : : ; .

The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours,

ginning at 9 A. M. on the day indicated in the first column, A dash denotes that
the result is included in the next following observation.

400. Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journal. -[May, 1826.

REMARES.

Third Month—\. Fine. 2,3. Rainy. 4. Wet morning. 5. Fine. 6. Showery.
7. Rainy. 8. Rainy morning. 9—12. Fine. 13, Fine day: rain at night.
14. Fine. 15, Clondy and fine. 16—18, Fine. 19. Showery. 20, 21. Fine.
22. Cioudy. 23. Rainy evening: a considerable fall of snow in the night.
24, Cloudy. 25. Cloudy and fine. 26. Fine: a shower of hail at one, p.m.
2i—31. Fine.

RESULTS.
Winds: N,1; NE, 7; E,4; SE,3; SW,7; W,1; NW,8&.

Barometer: Mean height
For the month. ....cccccesvccsvececccccscscensrscs 30145 inches.

Thermometer : Mean height
For She eibath. «cess iuvcscetteccdelacecete shapes somal
Evaporation... .--cceccecscavccccecarscsesvccssscascesceesvcaurs 2-19 in.

FIA scndea obec cvbecduvcccectalcautesavsbidme acles ehen@uaued bier vers 146.

Laboratory, Stratford, Fourth Month, 24, 1826. . R. HOWARD.

‘

ANNALS

OF

PHILOSOPHY.

JUNE, 1826.

ARTICLE I.

Experiments.on the Colouring Matter of Lac, and on its Applica
tton to the Dyeing of Scarlet. By E. 8. George, Esq. FLS.

(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)
GENTLEMEN, St. Peter’s Hill, Leeds, April 26, 1826.

Dr. Bancrort was the first to call the attention of the dyers
of this country to the use of lac as a colouring matier ; his expe-
riments made upon the preparation known as lac lake, appear to
have failed in the practical details, yet they led to more success
ful trials, and lac lake was much employed in the dyeing of
scarlet upon the coarser woollen cloths.

But a subsequent improvement in the manufacture in India,
imported as lac dye, has furnished us with a dye rivalling cochi-
neal in brilliancy, and surpassing it in permanency ; it 1s to the
latter substance our attention has been more particularly
directed.

The best kinds of lac dye consist of the colouring matter
combined with alumina, and contain a small portion of resin and
extractive.

One hundred grains of lac dye marked D. T. boiled two hours
and a half in three measured ounces of water, lost 10 grains. The
solution was of a light yellow colour, and gave with muriate of
tin a plentiful fawn-coloured precipitate. When concentrated,
the solution became deep-yellow coloured, and had an intensely
bitter taste.

The part insoluble in water was almost entirely dissolved in
solution of subborate of soda, or subcarbonate of soda; from
these solutions sulphuric acid, not in excess, occasioned a dark
red precipitate, muriate of tin a bright red, and sulphate of
alumina and potash a full crimson. The supernatant fluid, after
the precipitation by sulphate of alumina and potash, was limpid.,
after that by muriate of tin, peach-coloured ; and after sulphuric
acid, light-orange.

New Series, vot. X1. 20D

402 Mr. George on the [JuNE

Ninety-five grains of lac dye were boiled three hours in four
measured ounces of water, 10 grains of extractive were dissolved,
the remaining 85 grains were digested in solution of subcarbo-
nate of soda, and the solution filtered ; on the addition of sul-
phuric acid a precipitate fell down, which, when dried, weighed
38 grains. It was sparingly soluble in boiling water, and preci-
pitated as the water cooled. F ‘yy <4

The solution in boiling water had a fall peach colour ; sulphu-
ric acid first reddened, and then converted it to an orange,
muriatic acid very much reddened, nitric acid did not redden so
much as the muriatic, supertartrate of potash reddened but not
in so high a degree, the acids did not occasion any precipitate,
subcarbonate and subborate of soda changed the colour of the
solution to a crimson, sulphate of alumina and potash threw down
a beautiful dark-crimson precipitate, muriate of tin a bright-red
precipitate, sulphate of copper a dull-crimson precipitate; sul-
phate of iron a dirty-red precipitate. Chi i107

The colouring matter of lac appears to differ from that of
cochineal in its sparing solubility in water; but in the combina-
tions they both form with the metallic oxides and alumina, they
closely resemble each other. arte

Its combinations with the metallic oxides, and the permanency.
of the colours thus formed, bear a striking analogy to those of
extractive ; from which it differs in not being precipitated, but
rather rendered more soluble by acids, and in its comparative
insolubility in water. 64

Before entering upon the process for dyeing scarlet with lac; we
will examine the othersubstances employed. On the introduction
of laclake, it was found that the resin with which the colouring
matter is combined required the action of a powerful acid for its
solution ; for this purpose, sulphuric acid, or a mixture of the
sulphuric and muriatic acids, was employed. The use of so
great an excess of sulphuric acid is injurious, not only m impair-
ing the brilliancy of the colour and converting it to a shade too.
much approaching to orange, but also in rendering the cloths when
dyed harsh to the feel; indeed these effects prevented its appli-
- eation except to the coarsest quality of goods, Since the intro-
duction of lac dye, muriatic acid alone has been employed, and
it has been found quite sufficient to combine with the alumina,
and to dissolve any small portion of resin. 6? tattid

The acid employed is known by dyers as lac spirit, and is
formed by dissolving in 60 lbs. of muniatic acid, specific gravity
1-190, 3 ibs. of tin ; the solution is colourless and fuming. . The
solution of tin used scarcely differs from that employed in the
dyeing of scarlet with cochineal, except that it contains a larger
proportion of oxide of tin. 1 iy

The aquafortis (nitric acid) should be distilled in glass vessels,
and perfectly free from nitrous gas. The aquafortis most

1826,] Colouring Matier of Lac. 403

esteemed by dyers is formed of nitric acid specific gravity 1:170,
to which 1-20th of muriatic acid specific gravity 1-190, has been
added. A notion formerly prevailed amongst practical men that
-aquafortis should be kept in the carboys twelve months before
being used; but if the nitrous gas be carefully separated, no
such length of time is required.

To make the solution, 28 lbs. of aquafortis are poured into an
earthen vessel, the form of which is slightly conical; this form,
by exposing a large surface, allows the gases formed during the
solution to escape. A single handful of finely granulated tin is
thrown in, and, when dissolved, fresh portions are added (stirring
carefully between each addition) until 4 lbs. have been dissolved ;
the solution, after remaining 12 hours to cool and subside, is
ready for use.

It is advisable to use the tartar (supertartrate of potash) in
powder.

For the shade of yellow required to form scarlet, young fustic
(rhus cotinus) in chips, inclosed in a bag, is used.

The vessels employed for the dyeing of scarlet are of block

tin with copper bottoms; some dyers use vessels composed
entirely of tin; they are liable to accident from the melting of
the tin, if the fire be urged too violently, nor do they wear so
long as those of tin and copper. When the copper is kept well
cleaned, no deleterious action will occur.
. The first operation of dyeing is the mixing of the lac dye ; it
is performed in an earthen vessel of similar form to that described
for making the solution of tin. To each pound of lac dye, of
the quality of D. T. (ground to an impalpable powder) three-
fourths of.a pint of lac spirit are added, and the whole mixed by
stirring with a wooden spatula ; this proportion will form a very
thick paste: four measured ounces of solution of tin for each
pound of lac dye are then poured in, and after being again well
mixed, the lac dye is left six hours to the action of the acid
before being used.

Woollen cloths or yarns before being dyed are well cleaned
by fullers’ earth and water, which, by removing any oily matter
that may adhere to them, and rendering the cloth equally wet,
facilitates the deposition of the colouring matter.

__ For the dyeing of 100 lbs. of pelisse cloth (a broad woollen
cloth of thin and open texture), a tin vessel of the capacity of
300 gallons is nearly filled with clear water, and a fire lighted
in the furnace ; when at the temperature of 150° adishful of bran
and half a pint of solution of tin are thrown in; they, uniting
with any impurities floating in the water, form a scum upon the
puriaees which is removed when the water approaches to
oiling.
_ When boiling, 1011bs..of D. T. lac dye proniquely mixed
with seven pints of lac spirit, andy thaee and a half pints of solu-
2D

404 Mr. George on the Colouring Matter of Lac. (June,

tion of tin are poured in; a moment after 102 lbs. of tartar, and
4 lbs. of young fustic in chips, inclosed in a bag, are added, and
the whole boiled five minutes. The fire in the furnace is then
withdrawn, or smothered, and 20 gallons of cold water poured
into the dyeing vessels, 102 pints of solution of tin are imme-
diately added, and the cloths are entered, turning over the
winch during ten minutes rapidly, the fire is then raised, and the
cloth turned more slowly ; the liquor in the dyeing vessel is made
to boil as soon as possible, and the cloths are boiled one hour ;
they are then carried to the river and well washed, and afterwards
washed in a fulling steck with water alone.

These proportions will dye a brilliant scarlet, inclining slightly
to the blue tint ; if more of an orange shade be required, white
Florence argol may be substituted for tartar, and more fustic
used.

The cloths described weighed 12 ounces to the yard; heavy
stout goods do not require so much of any of the dyeing stuffin
proportion; since they are not so easily penetrated by the
colouring matter, 10. lbs. of lacdye will dye 140 lbs. of coating,
24 ounces to the yard.

A scarlet equally brilliant with that dyed in the large way may
be produced in small experiments ; in the latter case, the propor-
tions are a little different. I have found that for the dyeing of
180 grains of yarn, in a tin vessel of the capacity of six pints,
60 grains of lac dye mixed with 40 grains of lac spirit and 40
erains solution of tin, and in the dyeing vessel 70 grains of
tartar, 1 dram (measured) of solution of tin and 12 grains of
young fustic, produced a brilliant scarlet.

Lac dye may be substituted for cochineal in most shades of
orange, but in the more delicate shades of rose and pink, the
large proportion of acid employed to dissolve the lac dye
destroys the brilliancy of the colour. I have found in some
experiments made with the colouring matter of lac in a state of
purity, that all the colours for which cochineal is usually
employed may be obtained from it. In lac dye, the colouring
matter being combined with alumina, the insolubility of the
compound prevents any combination between it and the fibres
of wool. Yarn boiled one hour, with a considerable proportion
of a lake formed by precipitating the colouring matter of lac
from its solution by alumina, scarcely received a stain.

The sulphuric and muriatic acids are employed to dissolve the
alumina; the colouring matter being thus rendered soluble unites
with the oxide of tin im consequence of superior affinity, and the
new compounds combine with the woollen fibre. It is probable
that scarlet dye is a compound of tartrate of tin, or tartrate of
potash and tin with colouring matter, since it is only on this
supposition, that the effect produced on the colour by the quantity
or quality of the tartar employed, can be accounted for.

1826.) On English Books of Naval Architecture. 405

Articie II.
On English Books of Naval Architecture. By Mr. Major.
(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)

GENTLEMEN,

Horie that a few remarks I have put together on a work
just published, entitled, “ Papers on Naval Architecture,” may
not be deemed unacceptable, as tending to give a correct know-
ledge of the subject, 1 beg to offer them for insertion in your
valuable work. 1am, Gentlemen, your humble servant,

JoHn MAsor.

— i

Tue subject of naval architecture is now beginning to be
studied scientifically in this country; and it is allowed by all
persons acquainted with it, that its cultivation must be of mate-
rial benefit to us. The fact of our being obliged to copy
French and Danish ships of war, and even those of America,
while they have, in no instance, copied our bottoms, sufficiently
shows our inferiority in the art: our merchant shipbuilders also
find among the vessels of our rival brethren the best models for
jmitation; these truths are certainly sufficient to rouse the
energies of our nation,—to make them probe the subject,—to
inquire why these things are so’? The principal reason of this,
no doubt, is, the theoretic pursuit of the subject has not been
encouraged among us, as is clearly expressed by Mr. J. Knowles,
Secretary to the Surveyors of the Navy, in his work on the Dry
Rot. His words are, “In proportion that the theoretic con-
struction of ships has been neglected in this country, the prac-
tical part has been encouraged.” No patronage has been held
out in the navy for this object till within a few years. The small
extension of it towards the science has already done much: the
work under consideration is one of the fruits of it. To use terms
of political economy, immediately a demand by encouragement.
has been made, a supply has been afforded. The proportion of
encouragement given to it will determine its future progress on
the same principle. The work before us is, therefore, to be
received with the pleasing expectations of its being the blossom
of aripe harvest. It is principally on the elementary principles,
in which there is little new matter: it speaks, however, in the
best terms for itself.

The work is dedicated to Dr. Inman, who is the Professor of
the Naval College and School of Naval Architecture. Nobody
can regard this gentleman’s situation without being struck with
its immense importance, and the extent of its duties ; he is the
only professed teacher of nautical science, of eminence, to a vast
navy which commands the ocean, that is paid by government,

406 Mr. Major on (June,

Marine colleges, with their professors, abound abroad, and
extraordinary exertions are now being made by the French
government in nautical science; in this country, we have but
’ one college on a small scale for the purpose, if we may except
the Greenwich Asylum; even America, with its numerically
inconsiderable martial marine, is on the point of forming an
establishment on a large plan, which will give encouragement to
the first scientific men to devote their attention to this interéest-
ing and highly important branch of knowledge, sdailduc dan;

The introductory remarks of the Papers on Naval Architecture
embrace a cursory view of the present state of the science in this
country,/as compared with others; and candidly state that the
difficulties of the subject have so much impeded its advance-
ment, even in those countries where it is best known, that it is
still imperfectly understood. This latter remark applies with
too much force to the synthetical composition of a ship, as
involving a knowledge of the actions and motions of air and
water. Indeed, if we wait for a theory of vessels till those phy-
sical problems are mathematically investigated in such a manner
as may be applicable to shipbuilding, it is to be feared that we
shall never have one. By the analysis and comparison of ships,
however, there is confident hope of improvement; much’ has
been done in this way towards perfecting ships, as may be easily
seen, by looking at the different’ performances and qualities of
many foreign vessels, as compared with those of our own build.

There is a writer on naval science, Dr. Robison, not men-
tioned in this little work, but who has probably treated the sub-
jects of the resistance of fluids, of seamanship, and the action of
air on surfaces, in a manner as ample and masterly as any writer,
in his three articles on them, in the Encyclopedia Britannica.
He expresses himself very plainly on the little improvement, the
pure mathematical investigations of the subject from first prinei-
ples, has contributed to the determination of the forms and equip-
ments of vessels; and, at the same time, states the great
improbability, as mentioned above, of much good ever being
effected in that channel. In the same article, he recommends the
pursuit of the subject, by investigating the results of facts, in
their causes and effects. His words are, as may be seen at the
commencement of his treatise on seamanship, “ But let it be
observed, that the theory is defective in one point only; and
although this is 2 most important pomt, and the errors in it
destroy the conclusions of the chief propositions, the reasonings
remain in full force, and the modus operandi is precisely such as is
stated in the theory. The principles of the art are, therefore, to be
found in these treatises; but false inferences have been drawn by
computing from erroneous quantities. The rules and practice of
the computation, however, are still beyond controversy. Nay,
since the process of investigation is legitimate, we may make
use of it in order to discover the very circumstance in which we

1826.] English Books of Naval Architecture. 407

are at present mistaken; for by converting the proposition,
instead of finding the motions by means of the supposed forces,
eombined | with the known mechanism, we may discover the
forces by means of this mechanism, and the observed motions,”
When it is remembered that Prof. Robison was a midshipman in
the navy for seven years, and therefore knew the thing in prac-
tice as well as in theory, his observations have additional weight,
Mr. Harvey has well expressed similar opinions in the Annals
of Philosophy for January last.
_ Inthe introduction, there is but little historical detail of the
progress of the science; and what there is of it consists too
much in general reasoning, instead of the production of facts,
uotations, and pointed allusions : in writing of such a descrip-
tion, less confidence must be generally placed; and by it less
advantage accrues to the science.
» A few of the writers on naval architecture are mentioned, but
their particular merits are not noticed. Among other treatises
on the subject, Chapman’s first work on shipbuilding, published
in 1775, and’ translated into the French in 1779, is named ; and
alsothe English translation of it from the French by Dr. Inman,
whose notes are said to ‘‘ have greatly enhanced the value of the
work.” That Dr. Inman deserves much praise for his conduct
of the school of naval architecture, there can be no doubt; but
thathis translation of Chapman, with the notes,* issuch a work on
the theory of ships of war as can satisfy the present claims of
naval science, is not to be affirmed, with a proper view to
improvement in this country. The notes do not supply all
the additional information of the 50 years between the original
and the second translation: besides, the original is on merchant
shipbuilding, of peculiar and limited descriptions. IfChapman’s
large work on ships of the line, published in 1806, at Carlskrona,
had been rendered from the Swedish into English, a very consi-
derable difference would then have been made in the relative
progress of naval architecture in this country within the last 10
years. Every merchant shipbuilder in the kingdom ought,
however, to possess Dr. Inman’s translation of Chapman, which
is a valuable present offered to them by the Professor.
Chapman is one of the few writers on shipbuilding who
adduces facts in support of his observations ; and, therefore, the
Professor has wisely chosen him as an author. There is not
such a display of mathematical attainments in the Swedish
author as in most of the French works; but there is more useful
matter for shipbuilding than is to be met withinthem. The
French, in many of their works, appear to have kept the actual
consideration of the formation of ships out of their books ; con-
tinually refining on hydrodynamical and pneumatical principles,
they have rather sought the principles of those branches of

- ™ The multiplicity of the gentleman’s engagements make it astonishing how he has
effected what has been done.

408 Mr. Major on * [June,

science, than the laws, proportions, and rules: of shipbuilding.
Clairbois says, “ La théorie de l’architecture navale est toute
fondée sur des principes de l’hydrostatique et de) ?hydrona-
mique,” vol. i. p. 210. Now the fact is, that besides the theory
of stability, which those pure physical sciences contribute to it,
little else has yet been afforded by them to shipbuilding 5, all the
rest is pure induction from facts, which must) be compared by
mensuration and proportion, the parts of mathematics which are
principally useful in shipbuilding.. Whatever can be measured
or numbered is the department of mathematics to investigate ;
and as in shipbuilding we cannot advance a step devoid of such
calculations, it is impossible to make much progress init with-
out considerable attainmentsin geometry, mechanics, and algebra.
Much good has been done in this country by the circulationof short
rules and methods of computation, from the)seminary under Dr,
Inman, which enable the practical man to estimate his required
proportions, without being in possession of that fund of know-
ledge, by which the rules were first discovered.) iy0)) 0) 1)
In Chapman’s large work, on Ships of War, which is not
translated into the French, there is given the proportions of
every element in a ship; namely, the total weights of the ship
‘and of its hull, the weights of the guns, the proportional‘sharp-
ness of the bodies, the surface of sail, &c. These proportions
are such as his judgment, applied to his experience, fixed upon
as the best; they are, for the most part, expressed by exponen-
tial quantities, the indices of which are logarithms : actual trial
has determined them all to be good. The principle, which, by
uncommon extension, has produced that fine class of vessels,
the 60 gun frigates, is not fully developed by him; neither
would any of his ships sail with equal celerity to them, ‘The
speed of the large frigates, first used by the Americans (though
they most likely obtained the draught and equipment from the
French, by naval engineers, in the same manner that Washing-
ton’s army was supplied by military ones),* is, with a good side
wind, 13 or 14 knots an hour; while that of the Swedish ships
of war, which are all made to sail with one velocity, is only 101
knots, with a top-sail breeze. The principal table of this book,
containing all the proportions and quantities for ships of the line,
which M. Carlsund, a pupil of Chapman, did me the favour to
translate, is inserted in this article. ; :
Chapman, having discussed the principles of shipbuilding, as
they are generally called, in the usual routine, the same exactly
as in the leading papers before us, did not, in the larger work,
refer again to them. Dr. Inman’s translation of them forms a
better book for the pupil’s perusal than the little work under
consideration: there is only one exception to this remark, which

* The common idea that they arose from the alteration, caused by treaty, of line-of-
battle ships to frigates, cannot account for their excellent proportions. We have altered
seventy-fours, but not with equal effect, J fergie

1826.], Linglish Books of Naval Architecture. 409

® Mr. Fearnall, an eminent shipbuilder, at Limehouse, is, with several others, ary
exception $9 this remarks ? .

410 Mr. Major on (June,

and length, will give it, allowing the body to be of a certain
sharpnessand curvature. In our East India ships of 1325 tons,
it is 2 very nearly ; for the common 74 gun ship it is +: in the
tables of merchant ships, Chapman gives this ratio for his
vessels, The calculations proposed in an article on a Digest of
the British Navy, in the Annals for November last, would give at
once such practical guides. The plank of the bottom of our
ships is generally about th of the whole displacement.
he consideration of the tonnage is very properly united in
this article with that of the displacement. ‘The tonnage, or real
burthen of a ship, is the difference of the light and load displace-
ments; or it is the difference of the whole weight of the ship
with its contents, and the weiglit of the hull. th
The scale for tonnage, which has long been used abroad, and
was printed m Steel’s large work on Shipbuilding, 20 years ago,
is an ingenious mode of expressing the tonnage of the ship at
different draughts of water; and which, when once done for the
ship, requires only the trifling correction of observing her light
draught of water and displacement at every two or three years’
period of service, and making the allowance for the increase or
diminution of weight in the scale. As a ship frequently hogs or
breaks her sheer, the draught of water at the stem and sternpost
are not good guides ; in such cases a distance should be taken
from the ports in the middle. a
~The common mode of estimating the register tonnage is not
discussed, nor is any computation proposed inits place. Among
our ships in general, nothing has retarded their improvement
and advance towards perfection, so much as this erroneous rule
for estimating our British tonnage. a eH, 1
There can be little doubt, but that great advantage would be
derived to the country, by regulations being enforced for the real
measurement of the burden of ships. The only objection to a
reoular calculation of the burthen of a ship is, that it would cost
5/. or 10/. For effecting it, a plan or draught of the ship must
be made, and the lines to which the ship sinks, when there is
only her usual portion of ballast in her, and when she is loaded,
must be marked; the solid content between the two lines, then
being measured in cubic feet, and divided by 35, will show the
burthen in tons correctly. Usually, a ship is built froma draught,
in which case there is no occasion to measure one off from the
body ; but in the latter instance, the inconvenience and expense
would be very trifling, when compared with the numerous evils
attending our present mode. The draughts might easily be
attested, and they could be proved at any time. The origin of
our common rule, its evils, and other circumstances attending it,
would require too long a space to point out in the present arti-
cle ; but, from the consideration I have given it, I am bold to
assert, that it has been the cause of the loss ofan immense deal
of property, and many lives. In the endeavours to evade the

1826.] English Books of Naval Architecture. 411

just impost on their commodities, the merchants have sent to
sea ships of the very worst description. In the late inquiry on
this subject, several good approximate rules were given, of
which Dr. Young’s was the best: his mode, however, did not
include the weight of the ship, and might soon be evaded when
burden was the consideration. Whether the duties are levied on
the articles, according to their bulk or to their ‘weight, correct
calculations should be made of the spaces they occupy, or the
depths to which they cause the ship to sink, froman attested and
tried delineation of the vessel.

. The third article of the work before us is occupied in the con-
sideration of the centre of gravity of the ship. It is by no means
copious, including all extant that is valuable; nor is there any
thing new in it. Dr. Inman’s translation, with the exception
before-mentioned, has much more valuable matter on the subject
than it contains.

., The only methods worthy of consideration for determining the
point, are those J inserted in the Annals of Philosophy for Novem-
ber last, viz. that of considering the ship as composed of a
system of bodies, and finding the common centre of gravity by
the usual problem, and the mode of finding it by an experiment
onthe ship. The latter mode of finding it has generally been
attributed to Chapman; whereas Don Juan published it in 1771,*
in the Spanish language, and it was translated into the French
in 1783, which is four years before it was inserted in the Swedish
Academy of Sciences. The proposition may be seen in Don
Juan’s work, as translated by Leveque, p. 104, vol.ii. Although
recommended in 1793 in this country, it has not been undertaken
for any ship. In vol. 1. art. 900—6, of Don Juan, there are
valuable problems applicable to the same purpose. The new
solution | gave of the problem coincides in the result with Don
Juan’s, and therefore it is fair to conclude that itis correct.

. In the second new mode of finding the centre of gravity of the
ship by experiment, as inserted with that just mentioned in the
Annals of November last, I perceive 1 have committed an over-
sight by taking the inclination to the horizon in one problem,
while 1 had used that from the upright in the former, which is
its complement. This rectification applied will make the dis-
tance of the centre of gravity of the ship from that of the
displacement equal to aneaenet.

eT). FONE P cosin. A — V sin. A

- There is another mode of finding the centre of gravity of the
ship by inclination, which I have not seen noticed by any author.
The following is a brief sketch of it. Let the ship be heeled
to the same angle by two separate horizontal forces, applied
at different heights in the plane of the masts. Then _ it
is evident that their moments of inclining power must be equal,
* ® This is pointed out by Mr. Read, in No. 11, ofa periodical work, entitled, Essays
and Gleanings on Nayal Architecture ; published by Sherwood and Co.

412 Mr. Major on - June,

since they are both sustained by the same force of stability.
Let P represent one power, and p the other; and let a and 6 be
respectively their distances of action from the centre of gravit
of displacement, or any other fixed point; also let A be the angle
of inclination of the ship from. the upright, and put x for the
distance of the centre of gravity of the ship from

this known point. We shall then have the fol- P
lowing equations of their forces, the radius f
being always l.

P.a—2z.cos.A=pb— x. cos. A
Pa—Px=pb—px

From the above investigation, we obtain the following

Rule.— Divide the difference of the moments of the two powers
from the fixed point, by the difference of the powers: the quo-
tient will be the distance of the centre of gravity of the ship
from the fixed point.

. The centre of gravity of the displacement had always better
be taken for the fixed point, as it will make the signs in the
expression more clear.

As I humbly hope some little advantage to naval science may
accrue from these remarks, I shall offer more for insertion on the
same work. They are in close connexion with the suggestion
for a Digest of the Navy, which you did me the favour to insert
in the Annals, and the use of which, I conceive, I shall be able
to make yet more apparent.

In the course of my observations, 1 have confined myself to
truth, as far as I know, which is sacred in science. Ifany of my
ideas clash with those of others, | am sorry for it; but as prin-
ciples must be discussed, it is impossible to avoid it, and the
inconvenience must be borne with: I have subjected myself to
the same. Our country can only be maintained in its high poli-
tical station by the same means it has attained it, among which
that of general superiority in the arts and manufactures is most
prominent.—Shipbuilding ought not to remain without investi-
gaticn, and endeavours after improvement, being free from
restriction, like the other arts.

The fourth article of the Papers on Naval Architecture is a
most excellent and comprehensive disquisition, for a short one,
on the stowage of ships ; and will be particularly noticed in some
future remarks.

It has been stated, that we must not proceed far in our dis-
cussion on Naval Architecture, without having recourse to facts
and practical observations of ships: for this reason, Chapman’s
celebrated Table of Ships of the Line will be gladly received,
which was before spoken of; it is the most valuable document
on shipbuilding,

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415

if War.

aps o

Chapman’s Construction of Sh

1826.)

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ee wee OO Oe SETH eee SHHEOHH Hees HOH HHeeee i 1 3 tu B AqtAwaZ Jo axQUEd oY B10;aq@s

seseeecesere B= 7 OUTT-IIIUM AIT} JO JTPPIUt oy3 erOJaq st AIAwAS Jo aryUBD ay) LAY) PUY
reseeeee es = 32.0 = FT OUN-OWwA JY JO SPPHU ays equ St 7 SUTT-se78m IU} JO OTPPTAL

i in

ssustayo atp JO amyeNy

416 of My. Horner'on °° [Suey

This table contains the results of Chapman’s determinations
for ships of war from his large and expensive. work ; and there-
fore is by far the most valuable information contained in it. A
copy of the original work is in possession of Mr. J, Knowles,
Secretary at the Navy Office, whose scientific exertions for the
navy are well known; and whose liberal and obliging conduct
in lending his books on nautical subjects, of which he has pur-
chased a large collection, is to be highly appreciated : the more
so, as the naval college does not contain within its walls a library
on the subject. Previous to my going to Paris, and purchasing
such works, I was much indebted to that gentleman for the loan
of his books,

Articte III.

On the Use of continued Fractions with unrestricted Numerators
in Summation. of Series.* By W. G. Hornet, Esq.

(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)

GENTLEMEN, Bath, April 24, 1826.

1. Wuite the labours of Lagrange have reduced the theory
of continued fractions, with the constant numerator 1, to a state
little short of perfection, scarcely any thing of consequence, to
the best of my knowledge, has been done to render these frac-
tions in their unrestricted form available to any useful purpose.
The object, however, is not undeserving of attention, since the
fractions of Lagrange are applicable almost solely to mwmerical
solution; while the others apply even to series in their literal or
algebraic form.

If these fractions have not all the clearness of convergency
which Lagrange’s possess, yet where these are not attainable,
they are much preterable to expressions in a finite fraction, on
account of thefacilities they afford for simplifying the reductions.

The formule of Brouncker, who started the discovery of this
calculus, have been introduced by Euler, in his Analysts Infini-
dorum, in elucidation of a general method of turning any given
series with alternate signs into the form of a continued fraction.
The first of Euler’s formule is contained in the following propo-
sition, and when aided by a reduction that will paaeny be
described, it is adequate to all the others.

* Substituted for the investigation mentioned in my last paper, which more properly
belongs to another course of essays, and would be less interesting in a detached form,

1826.] the Use of continued Fractions, §c. 417
iWr=A—-B+C—-D+E~—F+ &,

. A
Thenisx =-, _B AC
it ABs
B-C+7-—y CE

C—-D +
D—E + &c.

By means of this theorem, a multitude of series may be turned
into forms, distinguished for elegance, and convenience to the
memory, as any one may convince himself by trial with the
common circular, logarithmic and other series. The great
drawback on the score of utility is this, that the fraction and the
series it represents, proceed part passu ; the aggregate of any
number of terms of the one, being the same as that of an equal
number of terms of the other. So that the fraction is merely a
transformation of the series, and not an expression for its sum.

To give a single instance: let this be the hypergeometric

series | — 2 + 6— 24 +120 — &c. Turned into a continued
fraction by the above formula, it becomes
i
mii
1+ Saves! & 48
TA —18 + &c.

Or, every where dividing two successive numerators and the
denominator. belonging to the first of them, by a common measure
of the three,* this formula becomes

1
m9) 2
1+ —
Epauaves i 4

A ery ei
me —3 + &e.

the law of continuation being manifest.
Here | is become =a 1—2is become + , 2. and so forward.

= 42
But as regards the value of the series, we only discover that the
successive links of the continued fraction converge very evidently

toward the limit a which, abstracting the sign, is always too
small ; that consequently the aggregate of m successive links is
still more nearly = aa which abstracting the sign is too small
or too great, as m is odd or even; and that consequently the
whole series has for its limits = and =; a conclusion to which
the series itself would have conducted us equally well.

2. In Prob. 51 of the Med. Alg. Waring has remarked that

* If this simple mode of reduction had occurred to Euler, he would not, I think,
have said of his denominators 6, c, d, &c. in § 368, ‘ arbitrio nostro relinquuntur,”’ and
have thus left his readers to conclude, that the values adopted by him were preferred
onl on account of their convenience—‘* ita autem eos assumi convenit ”’—and that a
different solution from his might be obtained by making a different choice of denomina-
tors ; a conclusion which would be quite erroneous,

New Series, vou. x1. 25

418 Mr. Horner on [Junn,

the arithmetical process for reducing an infinite decimal to con-
tinued fractions, and thence to a rational fraction, when possible,
may be applied to literal quantities also; which he exemplifies
by reducing two easy recurring series. The general bearing
and chief use of the principle do not seem to have occurred to
him, and hence his remark is oflittle value. .

In the Memoirs of the Académie des Sciences, 1772, 1 under-
stand Lagrange has proposed a method not very different from
this, for discovering from the known sum of a series whether the
latter is recurrent or not; viz. by reducing the reciprocal of the
sum to continued fractions, extending each quotient as far as
two terms. Every object proposed by these distinguished writers
appears to be included in the following simple and general train
of deduction. ei

The most convenient expression for a series whose sum is to
be found or approximated by continued fractions is,

@$=a— aa, + 44,4, — 44,4,4a, + SGi mths we (1)
which is perfectly general, while it favours the fractional reduc-
tions that follow. PutP=p—a,Q=q—a,p+a,a,R=
r—a,9 + 44) —4, 4,4, Xe. p, J, 7, Xc. being indetermi-
nate, and we have

SPP +Q4+R+

PSL +p + PHO wed + @ vee (2)

Make this = —“—; thenis
1+ 4
_ lt — am) + Q—ap t+ Qa) +...
Pr 1 +(p—a) + GY — ap + G a) +.

0 Bj

Make this = ;“, and let 8, = a, — a, and generally 8, =

4,4, — 4; then
_ By + (Bp — Bs ar) + Big — Barp + Bs as a3) + +2:
oa 1+ (p—a,) + @—@p +a,4) +e

: 8 .
Make this = we and put Yu =s Buss ca By <= Ay +o ae a, ; then 18
_ ate — 2%) + (nd — 2 GP + 13% a) + -

fe F B, + (8, p —Bya,) + OG — 8,4, P + B54, 45) + wees 1

ee t, a2 Yr : pe by ; '
Make this = By cy 0. and put o, cal Gy. B, Yu+t Fi a, Pike 19
then is oo eek
¢ 8 + Crp — a) + Org — % GP t+ 83 a a4) + sone
4 Ye + B= Yo 45) + O19 = Vo 43D + Yq Ag Gy) Fees
RORY. Gr iti é P
Make this = erg. and e, = 7; 41 — Yuri 013 thenis
et ee = ay) + (49 — co agp + £3.44 d5) + oe?
Pair EO EE AE SATIRE HOTA”

8, + (8; p —3, a5) + ig — & agp + 83 G5 4) + wees

Since the expression for ¢, is of the same form as that for ¢,,
we now possess the law for continuing the series, the rest of

1826.] the Use of continued Fractions, Sc. 419

which will, therefore, consist of a continual alternation of terms
similar to the last two. The collected result is,

CE BR 8 CAOIIGCUIOICOUOI. I icIOC (3)

The continued fraction is exactly the same as would have
resulted from performing the like operation on the series itself;
but there is a manifest advantage in having all the elements of
convergency in one view.

3. When any of the quantities ¢ becomes = 0, the fraction is
terminated, and the series is truly summed. E.g. If9,=0-.
e, = 0, and note, only, buts, «, &c. since p, a, a, Kc. are to

be left perfectly arbitrary. Whence ¢, = _ the other terms all
vanishing, and that individually, viz. y, p—y. 4, = 0,9, p—d, a,

= 0, &c. on the same principle. Therefore 9, = — * is to be
. Paes
'

identical with —_—=", the remaining terms vanishing,

B, + (8, p —B, ay)?
By +B p—Ps as
and separately as before. In the same manner ¢, = ea roe

1 —@-— 1+P+ “tre
%.= ORB Da EEN pet? Se remaining
1+ (p—a,) + (¢— 4 pt, 4) Lie gt

quantities R, S, &c. 7, s, &c. are therefore each = 0, and their
equations reduce to
q— 4,p + a, a, a i
—a,p + a,a,=>
es ep + a, a, = OD SY PO)

Conversely, if the series be recurring, the fraction will termi-
nate, as will appear by reversing this reasoning, since the sum
of every such series is expressible by a finite portion of
Leb O-."....
Rink dhe

If the series do not terminate, the continued fraction never-
theless affords an approximation towards the value of the series,
and means of estimating the degree of approximation, viz. either
from the law of continuation of the fraction itself, or by the
equations for P, Q, R, Xe.

While the quantities ¢ are all affirmative, the fraction is cer-
tainly convergent toward the correct value of the series.

By the aid then of the successive formule in Art. 2, any series,
but particularly such as are distinguished by alternating signs,
may be summed or algebraically approximated by continued
fractions, and in general arithmetically too, without the tedious
' process of direct division.

4. In illustration of these general remarks, let it be proposed
2E2

420 Mr. Horner on (June,

to find, or approximate toward, the sum of any series whose
successive terms are the continual product of quantities in arith-
m+(u—I1)r

metical progression. ‘The general value of a, being eee DY
ie 8

we have
Bie mur m _ u(nr — ms) u(n +s)
aie fea n” n(n+us)” n+tus Pi

ant Wes. 0 un * u(n + 23)
Y= Burr Bisa Galea hes BH al a eGR

sass Sa me is pe u.ut+l.nr—ms-+rs
"“~n+urlys"t Yuta neshuti Yt = ay (u+1)s.n + (u+2)s
un+il.n+2s.n+3s
x Bon = 1.2.n+(u+l)s.n+ (u+2)s
andso on. The final reduction at each step is preparatory to
the next step. Continuing the process till <,, ¢,, y,, are found,

the law of continuation becomes certain, and then putting y = 1,

we have
nr—ms n.n+s M+r.n
e; = TERT alien Ul Rae eT Bi heat 3 Ba won tea oar
2Q2Q(nr—ms+rs) n+s.n+2s m+2r.n+s
ay ee EL oy em ee os ES Let Rt en Se
0, <a PCE PA . n+S3e.n+4s. 1) 3, Aart apas mapas e,

38(nr—ms+2r s) _ n+2s.n+35 hs _ m+3r.n+2s
tS eee eee, Sie hee GL SE
n+4s,n+5s | n+5s.n+6s n+5s.n+6s

&e. &c.

When these quantities are introduced in their places in Eq. 3,
and successive reductions applied on the principle already inti-
mated, viz. that any two successive numerators, and the denominator
belonging to the first of them, may be multiplied or divided by any
common factor, without altering the value of the series, the value of

£1

m M.sm+r mMemM+rem+2r e r
Pic ath eum. + Wamee write a pee Se.""s- (9)

becomes in its most disencumbered form.

a
=— m
, }+— «ar-—ms
n+ (m+r)n
n+s + ‘——— 2 (nr—ms+rs)
n+25 + ———_—._— (m+ 2r)(n+s)
n+3s +

3 (nr—ms + 2rs)

— n+ 5s +&

the law of continuation being manifest.

This formula (5) includes a large class of useful series, of
which the following are a specimen :

Example 1.—Tan.~' ¢, or arc. tan. ¢ =

I 1 1
—— Ss aby tee mee) x —j
t 3 e+ ma: 7 t? + &e.
2 2
t— ang eee: 1 .t + &c. becomes

3 3.5.7

1826.] the Use of continued Fractions, &c. 42}

Example 11.—Log. (a + 1) = a — ta bee eS ent

a.2a a.2a.3a

a
BT Are Suk Weal BAR OE

2
1+ 3 Py le 2 a
3 +—— a
LE esa ORM
5 binhag «ppb:
7 + &.

SPAY yietaileeoO, AaMisg A at : ea
Example I11.—Given -~* = 1 ac ie ie ae

Veer 1 +. — ——— + ke. This, therefore, -be-

—— Ile
9 =
a te ee sing
4+— $82
Agi er Bes
7 -—&.
Abide |
aaa jake pelt x
1—-— 2
2+— 2
3-— ae
2+—
ee ee
T — &.
Example 1V.—Segment to versed sines v, V, or
Qu /Vv (1+ v v v + v.3v v v.3v.950
3 5V iIV'5V VEO 5 TVVaLey °
v
hid + &e.)
2Qvu/Vv v
= 1 Tees.
3 ‘eae eT IY
—— 3.7»
9V + Tree te
13 V + &e.

All these formule converge much more rapidly than the series
they represent, and afford a ready mode of approximating their~
values, when the arbitraries ¢, a, x, v, &c, are given in small
integers or fractions.

(To be continued.)

422 M. Berzelius on Isomorphism as (June,

ArtTicLe IV.

Astronomical Observations, 1826.
By Col. Beaufoy, FRS.

Bushey Heath, near Stanmore.
Latitude 51° 37’ 44:3’-North. Longitude West in time 1’ 20:93”,

May 1. Emersion of Jupiter’s first § 8h 49’ 50’ Mean Time at Bushey.

BALCIUtO) <0. vs chi. cane Y 8 51_11 Mean Time at Greenwich.
May 1. Emersion of Jupiter’s second { 10 30° 29 Mean Time at Bushey.
SACUITE Ss cs wie nly airra ob nies (10 31 50:7 Mean Time at Greenguch,
April 16. Occultation x Cancer by the Moon.
AMmMePiON 2.0 F eee ve clone sven 12 [OT W852. -
PIMNETNION. = cdsicty ao atgteeeekn «<a AB» 15 02 f Sidereal Time.

N.8B. Immersion instantaneous, and no perceptible diminution of the star’s light.
At the Emersion the moon’s limb was tremulous.

ARTICLE V.

On the Alterations that must necessarily be made in the System of
Chemical Mineralogy, in consequence of the Property of Isomor-

phous Bodies to replace one another in indefinite Proportions.
By M. J. Berzelius.

(Coneluded from p. 386.)

Classification of Minerals according to their most Hlegrapagaine

Element.
Class 1.— Minerals composed after the Manner of Sagi sae
Substances.
Ist Family. Tron,
AMETEDTIC TTON'S sa cin coc clas aes seeacsevcdeuse Fe (Ni Co Gy
2. F. Copper.
Native copper. ......+. eee cvccccssccccees (OL
3. EF. Bismuth.
Native bismuth s ..sseeeje- cs ccedeccces ata [Ea .
A, F. Silver.
Native SIVer 2. sccenc sec. e tedeietaiein eins Ag
5. F. Mercury.
Native mercury. .......... iSreapiorerrg Met 4
Amalgam 5 .5'~,,-< ¢ieseeinvigetaiesue« . Ag Hg?
6. F. Palladium.
Native palladium......... malet Gh ctu nin'e ip cink SPM
7. Platina.
Native Slatihctetecivias belt vise es sc aa’ ovve.c aces eb
8. F. Osmium.

Osmiuret of iridiumseeesseccsccesecsesere Lt OS* ta

1826.] = affecting Chemico-Mineralogical Systems. 423

9. F. Gold.
PIB COI. 5.5 oss KLIS sen uadies owes eves AML
Electrum, or argentiferous gold ....,..+see005 Ag Au

10. F. Tellurium.
Native tellurium, . see eee soossteseaeseesee Te

Tellurets.
Mellaret of bismuth... nccsscgesgees--+-0+ Dl dex
Dede elena aaet <avaa sala .--.+ (Au Te + 4 Pb Te? (+ 2 Ph S*)
silver (foliated tellurium) nee Ag Te? + 2Pb Te? + 3 Au Te’

Graphic tellurium .....0..s0esccecceeesee. Ag Te? + 3 Au Te)

1 er 34 Antimony.

Native antimonys. sje.ciesjedo cles at's eere0c0- Sb
Stibiurets.

Antimonial silver, ....6-seeeeseeeeee+s--- Ag? Sb

12. F. Arsenic.
Rn ARE URTRPIICION. nec s auinc/aie.n La cistecsis cloves ah LAS

Arseniurets.
Arsenical nickel.
(kupfernickel). ...... Se asrcecentnecescie Ni As
ccnlee to's ccocs Gene sézaccar NR ASS
Arsenical cobalt. see rete tee ds oc oP a etteatt te Co As
I ect bc lecevewelddocdddsss Co As?
AARENIAted HISMMUE) ss. ccc oC sees necececies Bi As*
COPPEFr....ece0 ARSE CEE ISSO RAGS Cu As*
BT EGE Mratatsl oles sitvestt= patatwelee'e --.. Ag Asx
—— antimony. ;
(feStaceoUus).cvecseseeceeeese- Sb AS*
13. F. Carbon, C.
WDIATIONG He). sicialbes es uecccccccatetetscrsee
Fossil coal.
Anthracite.
Carburets.

GIAPIte, a eccesscccccconedsesedciraee F Cx

14. F. Azote. be
WNitrogen gas. ...cescrcscesccevrsccesen tiZe

15. Fy Selenium.

Seleniurets.
IRE INCCOMEAN Saal a eae viele alc cee caps ve scie= = Pb Se?
Seleniated copper...0..-...seeceeeces eso. CuSe
BURAINILGs oa cictas ofe's u' statins aoe sevacceceee @OU Se + Ag Se?
16. F. Sulphur.

Native sulphur .....0+e-eceee8 Geek uswwens S
Sulphurets.—Sulphuret of manganese...... Mn S?
Sulphuret of zinc (blende)..........++ ee Ane
Pyrites.

a. Yellow pyrites 4

~ Whi ies Goce that vue Fe

c. Magnetic pyrites....... 6: bw phate wreheiete Fe S1 + 6 Fe S?
Sulphuret of cobalt...........- prices oo cite FeSt +4CuS + 12 Co 83
Sulphuret of nickel...........-04. cain: aieie DES
Sulphuret of copper.

a. Grey sulphuret of copper... ... iiciei OSs

b. Hepatic sulphuret of copper.......-.- FeS? + 4CuS

c. Pyritous sulphuret of copper ......-+- CuS.+ Fe 83
SERIERGs Oecccantee perce csseb Tehies mes ais) gies
Sulphuret of bismuth, ...,.ece:ee+eeerewee Bi 8?
BUBOPIPR? ois-'ea als sis sb CNeede calieades ava ED Ser ©. Cn 8: + 2 Bre?

* From the Hartz. Analysed by M. H, Rose, who has lately discovered several
mineralized seleniuretted metals,

424 M. Berzelius on Isomorphism as [June,

Cupriferous sulphuret of bismuth.......... 2 BiS? + 3 CuS?

Bees soegisn aa ee came SnS?.+ 2CuS
Sulphuret of silver......-.. IB Te xetetasctode Ag S?
Argentiferous sulphuret of copper. dep sates SACU S-- Aee
Wismuth-bleyerz........ apatite ce cones Fe S? + Ag S? + 2 Ph S* + 2 Bi 8S?
POT AAD sa ee F ujardsaieowisin sl ataicls eats aralels Siaiata . HgS?
Sulphuret of antimony .......+-es20-6-.-- Sb 83
Nickel-spiesglanzerz...-.-0e+ecesssee+es Ni As, Ni Sb, Sb S
BAQUINONAE «oasis ish <eo'nn ohelTeine bese veces CuS + PbS? + Sbs3
Endellione ? (Schwartzerz).+..s.+++e6-+-6- CuS + x Sb S3
Weisgultigerz.

Pre OP PATICEU Syiccoraleietece'a yea si’ wie «i emirates Pb S*, Sb 83

DamUnChitaia aie tehe\a's\asaisie ate ovale Get ofa totetete « Pb S*, Ag S*, Sb S3, Ni As
Grey copper.
VEGI STLV EE staigisc,siniele «s\n els rcieveveecccies 28d S83 +3 Ag S?
Sulphuret of molybdena...... sawenivac's soe Mo 83
Sulphuret of arsenic.

GsMIRCAIBAD sc es'wisniasieize aie sipistala\ ete anise -» As S?

6. Orpiment......+- pia seine Vis ea vie's eee As $3
Sulpho-arseniurets.
UVES pickelstee veces «i0\- we PER esate Fe S+ + Fe AS*
Grey cobalt, 00. 0c cee sen 0s dele aeidecs cisjee0 Co S4 + Co AS?
MGTEY TICKEL s w's'z vais ajerw's e's, of isis 401Ms ge aay NiS* + Ni AS?

17, Oxygen,

OXYSENIPAN, -0/\<. babele son Castes acral as o*otn O

a. Electr ppontiie oxides,

Deutoxide of manganese .....2..seees0666 Mn Mn

Metalloidal manganese. .... Kone hoa weal Mee,

Red zinc. .... Le weidler ese eniens eraistelse esses Zn Zn
Oligiste iron. jae<ssedvecessgecdeaaraene FoF
Oxydulous iron «...-e.esee Seiseigigeleven ea Fe Fe f F3

PLETICMTINE ere cslaige ee te Al eC ee ble cinta alee Zn Fe + Mn Fe iv Fe

Earthy cobalt. ...... NE er PERO st Aq
PRED POPPeD sve vrais weniele vie in'se'siaiaiete Se) weve Cr
Black copper ....cecas.: aes.on fe soles nl Cu
Massicot. ....++.. Pee Seer eee ei Pb
Minium 200 cecccenscvee cvcncens asicailees Pb
Oxide of bismuth .....0.00seceseceeroes . Bi
Black Uraniie sc isesic ois snes eerdias concvces U

OIE Of tM) ivieadins + eww a's Wilslersteri de wantiiny IL

b. Electro-negative oxides.

WWidiein, Sas vse tadicks gianna Di rakln cenit EE alg
Flydrates.

Brucites scccccsceeccssvevccesccusncceccs Mg Aq? M Aq

1826.] | affecting Chemico-Mineralogical Systems. 425°

Dull manganese. .....5...ccccedvecwenene Mn Aq, Mn? Aq
Hydrated oxide of iron... .ececeecereeeeee Fe? Aq’, Fé Aq
Hydrated oxide of uranium .......+++000. U Aq*

Alumina.

CORNGUNT occ < nero co come Nets aps ap oeeese Al, 4

Aluminates.
Spanetle. =. BSL IV IVI a Rede epee ecnnas tt AO

ICON BEC on's avewiaial welds sie ele'd e'orhasiWe oj0\ nei gue Aé

Cr
Pate Parmane veieisine celcsisie ccb-eine'sie ssl” APCS
GROUT JE an Aenea pciniapmaaivieo'eisis tte be A>
Plomb-gomme........ sadias sclyncepe conte Actes Gakey
GIDDSItE 225. ee see sees cc oece Nore Bertanie see OC)
we cece cese ee acocesccceciaesseces F? Aq +3 A? Ag

: AB
DIBEPOFE. *2 25 wie +e Seatial clo’ fee fae Sbisee Sif Ag

Silica, with its varieties of crystalline forms,
aggregation and colours.
a. Silicates with a single base.
1. Silicates of lime.
eee eeeereerree ereeeee eee eeteoee eee C 83
Wollastonite* C8
(tabular spar) eer e eee ee eweeeeeeeteeaee ‘
2. Silicates of magnesia,

Serpentine ...... Balge se Wade os oblve Ws ajue 4 89

PARC AINGE a ain win) e'w aee'n tie a the dp sje Spee Serene MS! + 4 Aq

PIP SICINIEN, wo no ou aie sie'd e ceisie as aeie eens MS3 + 2 Ag

PT AMOUEE Ts os on aiewa'ss. 201.51! Cuiaee aie sate ee

Marmalite. ...-.......4. Seceviseavocccse MS + Ag
Hydrosilicates of magnesia.

Noble serpentine ......... Sods seit a Bens «. MS3 + M Ag

Serpentine from Gullsjo ?+ ........ eoveeee M4? + 2MS
3. Silicate of zinc........ insist aie vecseeceees MNS + § 4G

A, Silicates of manganese.

Ted .. sceeceedvews Hn S?

="Dlack «6d staieo0. . MnS + Aq
—— metalloidal? ...... Mn3 §

5. Silicate of cerium (cerite)....,.00+eeeres . CeS
6, Silicates of tron.

Hisingerite.

Chlorophieite.

Chioropal . 225.3 sc0.c08 tees ccevecnseres Sf S3 + 3 Aq
7. Silicates of copper.

Dioptases . on). «Bee: lals we dbreiaiwaledyne's ain Ou S* $2 dg?

Siliciferous malachite.
8. Silicate of zircon (zircon, hyacinth)........ Zr

* This substance so coincides in the directions of its cleavages and measurements by
the reflective goniometer with tabular spar, that it can scarcely be said to be even a
variety of that substance ; and we fully agree with Mr. Phillips in hoping, “ that the
name given to it by Leman, in honour of Dr. Wollaston, will be abandoned, and that
we shall ere long find the designation of Wollastonite, in honour of one who has done so-
much for almost every department of science, appropriated to some mineral of a less
questionable nature.” (Introduction to Mineralogy, $d Edit. p, 211.) —Ed,

+ Colourless, translucid, Analysed by M. Mosander,

426 - M. Berzelius on ‘Isomorphism as (Jung,

9, Silicates of alumina.
Disthene. ....... igs S846. odivlae dalde seooo, 42.8
ERG IBY 'a 5. ann aes coos ouanceneriucder tk Ai
Blue clay... fenee sets Sock ad OSS. oe AS? e
Clays in general.

b. Silicates with several bases. yy
1. Silicates with an alkaline base, with silicate
of alumina and water of crystallization.
Zeolites
Apophyllite, ....cccscccccesascsseecssas KS ET SCSS 4 16 Aq
Chabasie

a, —— with base of soda ........0eee0. xs +348? +6Aq

Cc :

6, —— with base of lime (Leyyne)...... xh + 348+ +6 Ag
DEPRGEP PEs) - . 552s. ic gh cogs ha dhe ccc ee 3AS+2 Ay
Mesolite........ neha cn ceeecers VW S39 4+ 2083491458 +8 dg

from Hauenstein ........00----.0. NS? + CS +6458 + 6 Aq
MAO, 02.55 webnsa'ngs cOSbegencrcce RY F MCR Ol ge 8 Ag
PDALIME . 5's. . cteisw ce RUT aNy seessees NS 43.48? + 2 Ag
Thomsonite ...... cece cedeses ceoncumpant ue cto GS. 19 Agi 10 4g
Stilbite ...., seer eeeee ceereeeeecesteess CSS + 3 A 83 + 6 Ag

Cc

——— dodecahedral, lamelliform.........- ar S3+34 5934 6 Ag
AEWA i os wis ec srs cogs seeeres CS +4483 + 6 Ag
Brewsterite ........ eevdsuels wag phaiatelss st S>4+4483 + 8 Ag
Laumonite ............. nopparaas Bera atere CS?+44 S83 + 6 Ag
COIEZIE. sds oc a a, RHE Be ee seserese C534 348 +3 Ag
Harmotome .........0.00- ttresseeeteees BS +4AS + 6 Ag
PrEhOite ooo. sain vie coe SP eT. ee What <1 OS +3484 Ag

2. Anhydrous silicates, with an alkaline base

PBR Ee ones ewe cocci BOs ie: vatzy ed + 3A 83
PUN e avian an even ss duvansasancage cic SS » Se
Wetalite }io.. sisidiegie Meme ew tee oscedcecs Ly S5 + 3-4-8
ATIBMANG So 5 ie's's's ote Pate chs MEM eae LE 83 + 34S?
N
Spodumene with base of soda. aidecse cn — S3 +34 §*
M

Lencite (amphigtne)..........cceeeescees KS* +3 A S
MFABTAGON ise n cce ae icincem eee eaeen N83 +3083 + 1248
LNA ARN URE: take ep! we +4248
Meionite.
Scapolite.
Wernerite. :
Ekebergite. ........ teecevescescccetress CH24+3NS2+ 848
Eleolite...... So ba ar tae Peer a x S+348
iNepheling ..acccccccureces ce oe secene NS+3AS
Sodalife oo aint ae iain tates oar NS? 4+2AS8
1 Fi eet Pepe eal iy. ea yeeros a Qasraente CS +2NS+9AS
Anhydrous scolezite,.....sssassseeecasss. CSB +3AS8
Andalusite 2

Appendix,
Perlstein, spherulite.
Resinite. _
Obsidian.

Marekanite.

1826.] affecting Chemico-Mineralogical Systems. 427

3. Silicates with an alkaline base, with silicates
of magnesia (occasionally replaced by the
oxidules of iron or manganese) and silicate
of alumina.

Talc.
Agalmatolite.
Pimelite.
Cimolite.
Chlerite.
Green earth,

Micas.

a, — with base of potassa.

5. — magnesian.

c. — with base of potassa and lithia.
Gieseckite,
Pinite.
Fahlunite.

A. Silicate with an alkaline base, with silicate
of iron.

PGUULLCH Talat 6!s's)p ¢.ncio,si<> «sinus gimele’selsie'S NEMS Cae
5. Silicates of lime with silicates of magnesia,
often replaced by oxidulous iron, more
rarely by oxydulous manganese; and the
silica sometimes replaced by alumina.
Pyroxene.
a, White'pyroxene.......cecesseeseees CS? + MS?

b. Green pyroxene evens ws clas te epeeies- cs4 2? @
c, Hedenbergite ..........cesseeercose/ OS? +f S?

M
d. Manganesiferous. .......s¢e0e e000. CS? f SS?
mn
: AM S? \
e. PATIONES <1 Sicicide totes clocge SO uee hate CS? + m we:

Amphibole.
PERL ALAIN ALC In dhateiss'c'e ie o's )s ses Gagumem, CMe ta US

LEMUNCINO LCS eas etn es eee an eee Ee: GSA + hse

f
©, Hornblensld, 2. oz 0-0), ois 0% Savoese'soe QS? 4: et pi

6. Silicates of lime, magnesia, and the oxydules
of iron and manganese.

SUV OEE. in vinwio n dpi adasiey oe esivaeisdeise sagen sO Sit 4 7S
EE isc vcingdin cee Senscncsces ces MS + 6fS +9 Ag
ERI icte ania ons vpn eucerin codes mn S? + f $?
Chrysolite (olivine).......0..ceceseeeeees ri: s
Diallage. ........ccscerccecsncsahcceveve f 5? +3 MS?
Hypersthene,.....+-0sececccccccsccceeee [S52 + MS?

7. Silioates of lime often replaced by magnesia,
or by the oxydules of iron or manganese ;
with silicates of alumina, occasionally re=
placed by peroxide of iron.
Epidote.
G, ZOU. sccerecscvcesercescosssces CS + 24S
B. Vistacite .seeseesessseesesseeseans EE S$ LAS
Tdocrase,
a, Vesuvian (common),
b. Loboite (containing magnesia),
ec. Cyprina (cupriferous),
Essonite,
Garnet,

428 M. Berzelius on Isomorphism as [Junz,

iy Grrosmular so. ose e cas cee oa PARTON ony
PVAPIOME s&s 2iucicctei e's ses aic'e alee ee VON EES BIS

Es AIMANAINE, «60. eee cecscsws Peeters pS CE wns

d. Magnesian garnet.

e. Manganesian garnet.

C
AR MEWSOC Ns min'atpielalaidsisistebale “aa pies tiss-6 1 S+S8
Chr
Cc
RivMiaxedsparnety. c4 sic cs siaioesleve veel * S+ a s
mn
ADMIN, oi bcidbee hcdecacee BOR a
Anthophyllite,
Cerine (Gllanite)......cccsccasseoccrescae CS + 2AS, ce 8, 78
vfs :
BMUOHEOILGS, cos cies ae pie euen Car ala sees taste MIP a> Sere eA
mn
Nephrite,

fo SES eH (CEE PISPESSE CIS er EON ee CP
Sordanvalite.......cscccsecsssccccoccene MS? + 2 FS? +3 4.82

Weegee, © 50a, occu qisida eeterbans os Ths +3 AS +9 4g

j 6
Siliceo-aluminates : Saphirin..... est eUee 7+ S+5aA i) {%
Chamoisite ..... seteccrseterccccsvonevee JIM + BFSG
8, Silicates of oxide of iron and alumina.
SSHUTOUIGE > © v:ae'e'c.c'o' cc mamas de clewwale aul cieletere pa Ss
9, Silicates of glucina and alumina.

Smaragdite (emerald) ..0.4...sv0seeccceee GS4+4+ 9A St
Euclase. ....-.- ceeecces Sebustenees cosine Get Sed S.
Cymophane ........ sececcecseccrccseces £ APS + 2G At

10. Silicates of yttria with silicates of iron,
cerium, &c.
Gadolinite.
a, —— from Ytterby......ceoseeerere COS + f2S+4VS
- Y 8S, C S?,mn§
6, —— from Kararfvet........seeceere }*6, GS, ce S

Orthite.
Pyrorthite.
11. Sélicates of zirconia, with other silicates,

N)
ne \

HNIC VANTUCY si ais\ca'e's v elulele Wieicirelb ve ktelosiere a Ceres = GO
c |
mn }

Oxide of titanium (ditanic acid) ....ee00006 Ti
a. Rutilite.
b. Anatase.
Titanates.
a. Titanates of protoxide of iron.
b. Titanates of oxide of iron.

Crichtonite.

Polymignite, *

* From Fredricwern, in Norway. This mineral is composed of titanic acid combined
with zirconia, lime, yttria, and the protoxides of iron, manganese, and cerium. It con-
tains besides, traces of potassa, magnesia, silica and oxide of tin. The name polymig-
nile signifies a mixture of many substances,

1826.]

Siliceo-titanates.
Sphene. ........

eeeerre

eeeweesrere rere

Tantalic acid. ..csesceeccsccccsecessvosses

Tantalutes.
Yttrotantalite.

Ti eaoeeee DICK

6b. ——— brown..

.—_ yellow. 0. eevrercceeecreces

Tantalite.

a. —— from Kimito.

b. —— from Finbo.....

affecting Chemico-Mineralogical Systems.

.. CT + CS6

Cas | T at
a
FeJ We
eterna)
Cas
VC...
yea fa?
U2

Mn Ta? + Fe Ta?

Mn€ T2?
Fe ) Sn

Mn{_ | Ta?

G, ——= from, Brodbo: sasdecncetecesence Fe > Ww
Ca} USn
d, —— from Bayern. .......-00ss00+ oe M? Tat + 4 Fes Tat
e from Kimito, but giving a cinna- Fe Fer
mon-coloured powder ....,..-++++ oeieey me Ta?
Mn
Oxide of antimony .....-.+--+++-+0+: . Sb

Oxide of antimony with sulphuret of ‘anti.

mony (oxi-sulphurette d’antimony)..

Antimonious acid .

Tungstic acid. ..s-eeseeeeees wweies cece ase
Tungstates.

Scheelin....csceseeeee coreces scecsecrcae

Wolfram. .ecccceceeccsecccccsccsevenes

Tungstate of lead........ woccecencsvecece

Molybdic acid ....
Molybdate of lead.....
Oxide of chrome. ....++++

Chromated iron.

eee

see weer e aren ene

Sb + 2SbS

Sb
Ca W?

Mn w? +3 Fe w
Pb W?

.. Mo

1. Pb Mo?

Chr

430

Chromated lead .......

Vauquelinite.......2.6-
Boracic acid.

Hydrated boracic acid... .secesecceeeceers
Borates.
"TINEA aig ce aicictwetion sic voSindtes koe cic pivinieie
PROBE. cencls ees science ARAE: Once ecb
Borosilicates.
Datholite...... Reacnvbescnetbegtn see sicice
Botryolite .....-. oo cues Cel deuh wi vice ac ccis
Tourmaline.
a. ——— with base of potassa.
db. lithia.

c. ———_—_—__— magnesia.
Axinite,

Carbonic acid....

Phew ee eee etee eee etre see

Carbonates.

Carbonate of soda. .

Witherite eettreet Pere eee eeeetenrene eeetee
SHONGHANUEY. oc'c's sce detec

Carbonate of lime....... pekiwe aes
a. Arragonite.
6. Calcareous spar.
Carbonate of magnesia.
E WETENL « o's'a accra eth Wed abode <eamans
% Earthy (giobertite) wae cccees ee seeeeee
c. —— With water of crystallization ...,

d, White magnesia .

Kee e meee wereeene

e. Dolomite...... vas eeemonvicmissaussaee
f. Miemite.
g. Gurhofianite.

Carbonate of manganese........+. “Oras

Carbonate of iron...... AA
Mixtures of the preceding.
Carbonate of zinc.

a. CBIEIIINC Ange wuemeltenc ons tes eau see's

M. Berzelius on Isomorphism as

We oVoictee vada taee Pb Che
ueies wave eaters 2 Pps Chr? + Cu3 Che

Bo Aq®
Na Bo? + 20 Aq
M Bo

Ca Bo? + Ca Si? + Aq
Ca Bo + Ca Si? + Aq

wis

M C + 6 Aq

M Aq? +3MC
Ca + MC

Zn?

[June,

1826.], affecting Chemico-Mineralogical Systems. 431

4. Earthy carb, zinc...... ya Sapeeeen Zn Aq® + 3 Zn Cc
Carbonate of cerium. ..... Piec! - SBS RAS A Ce re
Carbonate of lead ....... go SER Gabbe cop ives Pb Gs

Carbonate of copper.
GO Malate: (Sci sattecterscceccdens Ca + Ag

b. Blue carb. cop.....-. wldee ca eaccccece Cu Aq? + 2CuC?
c. Siliceous carb. COp. ....+2eeeees BSbroC

Humboldtine (oxalate of iron) .........++++ ?Fe O?
Arsenious acid ...... eerie aa avec cea ee ee
Arseniates.

Pharmacolite.....-ceccsssssecccenccesers Ca As + 6 Aq

- 5 Ca5(..::
Picropharmacolite ....-+esseererecereeees i Ast + 30/Aq
Me

Arseniate of iron,

a, Scorodite.
we tat eae «088

b. Cubic arseniate of iron,...-.+++e0eee- Fes As* + 2 Fe? As? + 36 Aq
c. Fer resinite.

Arseniate of cobalt.
a. Subarseniate.
b, Subarsenite.

Arseniate of nickel.
a, Subarseniate, from Allemont, ........ Nis As: + 18 Aq
. Subarseniate. 2.00000. sewctwecncascre Ni? As + 18 Ag

Ma DE all ia 5 | oc baw UY Pb As

Arseniate of copper, and its varieties which .
have been but slightly examined.

Phosphoric acid.

Phosphates.
Apatite... ,sccsrccscccccsescvedecreccces Cas P
Wagnerite....... Ladle Phe PS ey ae Pp

Phosphate of yttria. .60.0++s+ssseenccercoe ¥: Pp

Phosphate of iron.
as ———— from Cornwall ..4......002 Fet P3 + 16Aq .
b

from Bodenmais.;......... Fe? P? + 12.Aq

Phosphate of manganese». srassseceeacees Mn P + Fe P

432

Phosphate of lead ....ceeeeteeeeeeeeseeeee

M. Berzelius on Isomorphism as

[Junz,

Pb P

Phosphate of copper.
a. ———_———— from Ehrenbreitstein .. Cus P + 5 Aq
ie —— from Liebethen ....... Cu? ? + 2Aq
Phosphate of alumina.

a. Wavellite....eseeress

}. Lazulite from Kriglach.
c, Calaite.
d. Amblygonite. ...0.+++++

eee et eeenese

e. Phosphate of alumina, with ammonia,
from Isle Bourbon.

Phosphate of uranium.
a. Uranite .....-

b. Chalkolite, eaereeresee

Fluoric acid.
Fluates.

Fluate of lime ...-cess+svoeereeeeereeeees
Fluate of yttria ....+

Fluate of cerium.

c. Fluate of cerium and yttria.......

d. Yttrocerite ........

Fluate of alumina and soda.

Chryolite ....ssccevcesececccvecerecteees
Fluo-silicates.

Chondrodite. .. cecevsscececsctevevevees =2

Pycmite, .csccseccsccrccssceccareeeee wane

Topaz. seca eeeereteeerorse erasers sere

Al P3 + 12Aq

in + Ais Bs

. Ge'P + AUP + 48.Aq
Cus P? + 4U P + 48 Aq

3 NaF + Al F

bie + ie

MFL+3MS
AP Fs + 6 ALSi. 4A Fl+ 3.458
Al F3 + 6 AlSi: 42 Fl 43.458

iin i a

1826.]. affecting Chemico-Mineralogical Systems. 433
Nitric acid.
Nitrates.
Palipetre, josacs acts RE, BAA ieee Ky 2 eee
Cubic nitre ....eeeeeeseeensecerereenerees Na + 2 Az Az
Nitrate offal 25.4 U8 bas Gare eA As
Nitratd4f Hinghestn. ds i .S.es le ceeeees M +2 Az Az
Sulphuric acid.
Biraagyh, Mog: kids dik. Gans eens 8M
b. Sulphurous acid gas. ..-se++seeeseaes Ss
Sulphates.
Geers of aida, ss liceccccectneeeteces NO Se SO Ag
Sulphate of baryta. o..++-+seevceesseeeees Ba S*
Celestine ....ssceecccersccnsmecsrrectece St Ss:
Gypsum.

a, Anhydrous ....c0eee oesescersssves Ca S?

b. Hydrated. ge eer CaS? +4Aq

G: Glanberite....dJ.9.t £162.65, anon Dla Si Cat
Sulphate of magnesia, ...02.s.sseeseunees MS + 12Aq
Polyhalite .pub fit oad devs lihieddovveee KS + MS +268 +4 Ag
Sulphate Of zine ....00..svscpansepececces Zn $? + 12 Aq
Sulphate of iron Re IS RE PaO

TERGTCEH eta aea ses cides ddecsecscsses Fe S + 12 Aq;

BML, vache lcgienetew snestensee- FOE + 6 Fo S* + Taq

c. Fibrous. .

d, Ochrcous. «++ +++seeeseeeeeneeesenes Fe gue 6 Aq
Sulphate of cobalt .......sscsccsewsceeeren Cos S? + 24 Aq
Sulphate of lead ......eseeeseeceeneteree Pb S?

a, CUupriferous. .oieseeevyeorccnccceetes Cu Aq? + Pb S?

b. Sulphato-carbonate...... Sc ccsinattn dae Sb Cae

) Pb G2 + 3 Pb S*

ere rea eenmeseeee oe

* Or Pb 'S* +3 Pb C?? viz. sulphatortriecarbonalev=Ed.
New Series, VOL. &le QF

434 . M, Berzelius on Isomorphism, &c. (Junz,
Sulphate of alumina.
RV INCITS, S011 niclereinele win dale mereleiptelal ‘Al ‘gs +x Aq
b. With excess of hase ...+0+-ssvestsers Al 8 + BAG ee

c. Aluminite.

d, Potassa-alum.'so seasejo oc sepepseveces K S 4 2 Al $3 + 48 Aq

e+ Ammonia-alum ....-+-¢eeeeceereveee Az? Ho s + Al S3 + 26.Aq
Sulphate of uranium ....... seeeessoeseee US + xAq
Sulphates of uranium and copper.

Appendix: Silicates containing sulphates,
Lapiz lazuli.

Haiiyene.

Nosiane.

18. F. Chlorine.
Chlorides (muriates). ‘
Sea saltesdacvcasaswibaesaiae Lis bl ecinetaablasis ao Meee

Chloride of ammonium ...... Be rte eye tee Az H4 Cht
—-— calcium........ eT i Par +» Ca Cht
magnesium, ..... tel rbeutes Sm hy) op
a lead... ¢o0sapais By: Sem SEO Seated bs

a. from Mendip....,.+se+s ++se0e Pb.Cht +.2Pb .

b. Murio-carbonate of lead, from Madock Pb Ch* + Pb Ct

Chloride of copper b oie ab tlle ale viet ceencnees,, Cn Cht + 3 Cu. +. 8 Aq.
— ——- = BIIVET., 0. ce avacosisisdicnaceese Ag Chit
————-~ mercury ....... Saad de dapinsne .. HgCh*

Appendix containing chloriferous silicates at-
ready mentioned, but which, perhaps, may be
better placed near the chlorides,

Sodalite.
Pyrosmalite.
Eudyalite.

Class I1.— Minerals composed after the Manner of Organic Sub-
stances, from which they appear to. derive their Origin.

a, Organic substances but slightly changed, d, Bitumens,
Mould (Humus), 5 day Tea
Peat. :
Taenite. Asphaltum.
Dysodil. e. Coal.

b. Fussil resins. on All am varieties.
Yellow amber, _ he’
Retin asphaltum. Sf. Salts,
Elastic bitumen. Mellite. -

c.» Fossil vils, ‘ - Oxalate of iron.
Naphtha, a ne © ot ae Woes

Petroleum.

.1826.] On the Strata North of the Humber, near Cave. 435

ARTICLE VI.

An Account of the Strata North of the Humber, near Cave.
By the Rev. William Vernon, PYPS. FRS. FGS.* (With
a Plate.) Communicated by the Author.

Ar the first institution of this Society, it was suggested as a
geological subject particularly deserving the attention of its
members, to investigate the strata on the eastern side of York-
shire from the lias to the chalk, and to examine their correspond-
ence with the beds of the great chain which runs northward
through England to the Humber.

In this inquiry considerable progress has been made by the
late researches of Mr. Smith, who, having at the Society’s invi-
tation returned to the county, and resumed his examination of
its geology, has explored the northern range of oolitic hills from
Scarbro’ to Hambleton, with his nephew Mr. Phillips, has
detected three members of the southern series which had not
been before observed, and established the following descending
order of formations ; namely, the coral rag, the calcareous grit,
the Oxford clay, the Kelloways rock, and the Cornbrash,
between which and the lias of Whitby lie several calcareous and
sandy beds, occupying the position of the inferior oolite of the
south.

It remained an important desideratum to examine with accu-
racy that part of the oolitic range which was first noticed by
Mr. Smith in the neighbourhood of Cave, and which might be
expected to furnish the connecting link between the district
already mentioned, and the main chain of oolitic hills which
traverses the kingdom from beyond Bath, through Lincolnshire
to the Humber.

With this view I proposed to the Keeper} of the Museum, to
accompany me on an excursion, in which we made the observa-
tions now submitted to the Society.

The tract to be investigated was the country to the right and
left of the road from Goodmanham to Brough. We knew that
at Goodmanham the lias had been found by Mr. Smith, and that
he considered it as extending southward to the Humber, and I
had myself in 1823 traced the oolite from Sancton nearly to
Brough. I had also observed a different calcareous and sandy
rock further to the east, and immediately under the chalk an
exhibition of red chalk and blue clay similar to that which
occurs on the northern side of the Wolds at Specton and at
Knapton. The direction then of the lias, the character and
extent of two beds belonging to the oolitic series, and of the

* Read before the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, April 4, 1826,
+ Mr, Phillips,
2F2

436 Rev. Mr. Vernon on the Strata [June,

above-mentioned clay, were the leading objects of our re-
search. oe

The most westerly range of rising ground shown by the map
(Plate XX XVIII) in this tract is at North and South Cliff, and
here, if any where, we conceived the lias was to be traced. Our
route was, therefore, directed across the strata from Holme. on
Spalding Moor, by N. Cliff to Sancton. At Holme we found
the summit of the hill to consist of gravel, but the red marle
appeared about a mile to the SE with gypsum imbedded in it ;
‘the gypsum is worked for plaster, and being divided into two
qualities, the one white and pure, the other coloured with grey
marie, is sold at the rate of a euinea and twelve shillings a ton
The red marle shows itself for some distance on the road from
Selby to Cliff, and is then covered by a sandy alluvium which
“overspreads the country as far as the Cliff hills. .

On arriving at North Cliff, we found at once a little to the
northward of the village, the first object of our search, and at an
opening made for the purpose of burning bricks, discovered the
lias well characterised, and containing the distinctive fossils,*
of which specimens are before the Society. Mr. Phillips made
a sketch of the section which it here presents, the only one to
‘be seen along the whole range. We subsequently traced the
course of this stratum southward, with some difficulty from the
circumstance of the stone not being worked ; it appeared, how-
ever, at the surface near South Cliff, and we detected it again at
Hotham, at Everthorpe, and at the western end of the village of
South Cave; at these places we found its peculiar pentacrinites
and egryphites in heaps of blue clay and septaria taken out of
wells, one of which had been sunk twelve years ago, but the
materials had remained undisturbed. The stone extracted from
the well at Everthorpe had a peculiar hollow oolitie structure.
We are disposed to assign also to the lias the clay of which
bricks are made at Brough, and again on the road from Sancton
to Market Weighton. On a hill near the latter place, we found
it marked by gryphites in a brick yard; and at a point near
Goodmanham, on the road to South Dalton, where I had
formerly noticed the red chalk marle, we found under the red
chalk a rock distinguished by the same hollow oolitic grains
with which we had been struck at Everthorpe, certainly belong-
ing to the same stratum. Beyond this pomt its outcrop has
been observed by Mr. Smith all along the western side of the
Wolds by Pocklington and Seppington to Craike, and the lias
may, therefore, be considered as having now been traced in an
uninterrupted course from the Humber to Whitby.

Our examination of the next-range of hills to the eastward
¢ommericed at Sancton, where the oolite first appears passing

# Plagiostoma gigantea, Ammonites,
Plagiostoma rusticum, Pentacrinus caput Meduse.

IV. PLATE XXXVI.

GE OLOGY or CAVE &ce.

J. Skury, ec.

Engraved tor the Annals ot Philosophy, tor Baldwin, Cradock & Toy, Tune TIB26.

4 <a
«
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- % ri
Ps «
.
t
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{
\
‘
Ke
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. ”
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1826.] North of the Humber, near Cave. 437

out from under the chalk, and we pursued it along a continuous
line of quarries on the right of the road to Brough, by Ellerker,
almost to the Humber, in which at low water this rock is said to
appear. The stone is chiefly used for repairing roads, but in
some places is burnt to lime ; its general character is remarkably
ochreous ; two beds are distinguishable in it—the upper sandy,
and decomposing into round balls ; the lower decidedly oolitic,
and variegated internally with patches of deep blue. In the
fossils of this whole range, we found nothing indicative of the
upper oolites, but obtained several shells characteristic of the
inferior;* and we do not hesitate to consider it as the continua-
tion of that rock passing the Humber from Lincolnshire.

A little further to the east on the left hand side of the same
road, we met with the third range which we had designed to
examine exposed in a line parallel to the former in sand pits, at
North Newbald, South Newbald, and South Cave; it appears
also on the road about half-way between the last-mentioned
places. Further south we were not able to trace it, but think it
probable that the hill at Elloughton belongs to the same stratum,
which would bring its course down to the Humber: at North
Newbald it passes under the chalk without any interval between
the two rocks. The character of this stratum is well shown
in the section exhibited at the latter place, of which a drawing
has been made by Mr. Phillips ; it consists of loose sand abound-
ing in casts of shells, and containing masses of a hard calcareous
stone marked by numerous remains of gryphcea dilatata. Mr.
Phillips at once recognised in it the Kelloways stone, such as it
occurs at the base of Scarbro’ Castle Cliff, and found in it the
peculiar ammonite of thatrock. (A. Calloviensis of Sowerby.)

The remaining object of our investigation in pursuing the line
from west to east across the strata to the chalk, was the clay
which appears in Elloughton Dale under the red chalk. This
stratum we traced southward as far as Welton, and northward
to Brantingham, and there can be no doubt that it is the same
bed which throws out the springs at Newbald, near which place
its outer edge must pass under the chalk, for there the chalk
rests immediately on the subjacent Kelloways rock. The best
exhibition of it is in Elloughton dale, where there is a section
of the chalk marle, red chalk marle, and blue clay: the red chalk
marle abounds here with the same small belemnites as it con-
tains elsewhere, but in the blue clay there are none of these. [
found in it-one of the large belemnites which occur in the clay
at Specton, and ‘Mr. Phillips found two valves of the Ostrea
deltoidea (of Sowerby), with carbonised wood attached to them.

* Especially Terebratula spinosa (Smith).
Turritella (Sp. 1. Strat. Syst.)
Lima proboscidea.
Trigonie,

438

y
N

Holme

Newbald

Vale of York _

Coral Rag, ee

Rev. Mr. Vernon on the Strata [JuNE;

A similar belemnite was shown us from the.

clay at Brantingham, and we had heard of

a similar oyster procured near Welton; at

Welton we saw a large ammonite which

swe been found in a nodule in the same
ed.

‘he similarity of appearances at Ellough-
ton dale and Specton would lead to the
supposition that the clay at those places
belongs to one stratum ; Mr. Phillips has
found the Ostrea deltoidea also at Kirby
Moorside, and it is probable that the whole
substratum of the Vale of Pickering con-
sists of the same clay. Its unconformity
with the chalk, its position, as it should
seem, above the coral rag, and the disco-
very of the Ostrea deltoidea, decide us to
considerit as the Kimmeridge clay, over-
lying in the district which we are now
describing, the coral rag, calcareous grit,
and Oxford ¢lay, which reappear .to the
northward.

Between the Kimmeridge clay and the
soft aluminous chalk which forms the base
of the Wolds, and which we consider as
the chalk marle of Webster and Smith, no
indications appear of any of the beds which
intervene further south, except of the gault
or Folkstone clay; the small transparent
belemnite described by Lister seems to
mark the red chalk marle as the represen-
tative of this bed.

Upon the whole then a section of the
district which we have examined would
probably exhibit a series of beds such as is
described in the sketch accompanying this
paper,
it only remains to add, that on our return

_ we met with the red marle again a mile to

the west of Shipton, and that at Holme, we
observed the gravel to consist of the same
fragments of sandstone and grit, mountain
lime and slate, as in other parts of the Vale
of York, but that at every point where we
met with gravel near the chalk hills, it
consisted of materials brought from a very
short distance ; and though the soft chalk
pebbles were rounded, the gryphites and

1826.]_ ‘North of the Humber, near Cave. 439

flints were very little rubbed. In one of these heds of gravel we
observed a seam which bore a remarkably black and sooty
appearance ; I examined the powder which occasioned this
colour, and which formed a mamillary incrustation on some of
the pebbles, and found it to be oxide of manganese. The method
which I employ for detecting the presence of manganese is very
simple. To the end ofa platina wire I attach a little subcarbo-
nate of soda and a particle of the substance to be examined, and
hold it in the exterior flame of a candle either just above the
luminous point, or on one side; if manganese be present, the
melted bead becomes, on cooling, of a turquois colour; on
immersing it into the visible flame, it loses this colour, and
resumes it again when re-exposed to that portion of the flame
which emits little light, and where the combustion is perfect.

Since this paper was written, inquiry has been made of Mr.
Smith what his opinion was of the district above described, with-
out any communication of the remarks which we had made; he
replied that the sand pits at Newbald were of the Kelloways
rock, and the limestone at Sancton of the inferior oolite; that
with respect to the clay under the chalk hills, his observations
did not enable him to form a decided opinion. Such a confirm-
ation, as to the two former strata, of the views which we have
advanced inclines us to place confidence in their accuracy. The
principal deficiency in the foregoing account is in regard to the
cornbrash, the fossils of which have been discovered at Scarbro’
in their proper place; we were unable to find it here, but it may
probably exist, as at Scarbro’, in a thin bed, and be found here-
after between Newbald and Sancton. To future investigators,
it will suggest itself also as a proper object of inquiry to fol-
low the line of the Kelloways rock across the Humber, and
complete the discovery of its course by tracing it through Lin-
colnshire.

Explanation of the Plate.

Fig. 1. South of Goodmanham, Fig.3. North Newbald, Kello-

chalk upon lias. ways rock.
ae chalk’ a. Brown sand and stone.
tay Mig 4 b. White and yellow sand.
c. Lias clay. c. Sandy shelly blocks,
d. Stony lias. Fig. 4. Ellerker, inferior oolite.
e, Lias clay, a. Sandy beds.
Fig. 2. Elloughton Dale, chalk 4. Irony balls in sand.
_ on Kimmeridge clay. c. Oolite in oblique lamine.

a. White chalk. d. Oolite with blue “ cores.”
6. Red chalk. Fig. 5. North Cliff, lias beds.
c. Yellow parting. a. Compact lias stone. ) lying
‘d. Kimmeridge clay, with sep- 6. Shelly lias. iniesh

taria. . c, Thin-bedded lias. } clay.

440 Report of the Committee appointed [Junz;
ArticLte VII.

Report of the Committee appointed by the Council of the Astrono-
mical Society, for the Purpose off ctdiliniie the Telescope con-
structed by Mr. Tulley, by Order of the Council.’ (Communi-
cated by the Council of the Astronomical Society.)

desirous of disposing of his stock of dises on hand, and. that.a
very limited one, at a tariff annexed, and of obtaining a pecu-

1826.] by the Council of the Astronomical Society. 447

niary compensation for his secret, rather than of continuing the
manufacture. A Committee was therefore appointed, consist-
ing of Messrs. Gilbert, Herschel, and Pearson, to examine the
telescope, and thereon to report on the propriety of purchasing a
larger specimen for further trial. The report of this Committee
will be found on the books of the Society. (A copy is subjoined.)

A copy of this report was immediately forwarded to M. Gui-
nand, through M. Reynier. Meanwhile, however, other and
larger specimens, consisting of fragments of irregular figure,
were transmitted, and finally, a disc of 71 English inches in
diameter was placed by Messrs. Guinand and Reynier, at the
absolute disposal of the Society te examine without reserve, and
to report on as its merits should appear to require. It is this
disc, which forms the chief object of the present report, the
fragments, though considerable, and apparently of good glass,
being still not large enough to excite much interest, or call for
particular attention. This, however, was not considered the case
with the disc (one of such size fit for use, being very uncommon,
if not at that time unique in England), and having now, from the
free and unreserved mode of its communication, the means of
putting the pretensions of the artist to a fair practical test, it was
considered by the Council as a duty, due from them to the public,
to take every adequate step for that purpose. The disc was,
therefore, placed in the hands of Messrs. Dollond and Tulley on
the 14th of November, 1823, with directions to take every proper
means for ascertaining its efficiency for optical uses, and it was
finally agreed between those gentlemen that Mr. Tulley should
undertake to form it into the concave lens of an achromatic
object glass of 12 feet focal length. |

‘This has accordingly been done, but considerable difficulty
was experienced in obtaining a disc of crown glass sufficiently
homogeneous to match it, and it is evident that this was essen-
tial'to the object in view, both glasses being of equal import-
ance. A disc of French plate glass at that time in his posses-
sion was first tried, but after working it with all possible care the
combination turned out defective, and the telescope resulting,
though not a bad one, proved inferior to the high expectations,
which had been formed of it.. An artist of ordinary perseverance
would, perhaps, have been discouraged by this indifferent suc-
cess in a trial on so large a scale ; and the glass, without further
examination, would have been condemned ; but Mr. Tulley, with
a zeal and constancy for which he is entitled to much credit,
still conceiving that the fault might mainly lie in the plate glass,
resolved on commencing anew. Having, after much research,
obtained another fit disc of the less refractive medium, being
English plate’ glass, he again set to work, ab initio, refiguring
the flint glass, and the object glass now to be reported on is the
result of these his second labours. These circumstances your

442 .. Report of the Committee appointed . [JunE,;

Committee think it necessary to mention by way of accounting
(and in their minds satisfactorily) for the long interval elapsed
from the first reception of the disc to the final completion of the
object glass. |

In the state in which it has been submitted unreservedly to
their inspection, at Mr. Tulley’s house at Islington, mounted in
a temporary wooden tube, and ona stand of very convenient
construction for astronomical uses, its clear aperture is six:
inches and eight tenths, and its performance has proved in the
highest degree satisfactory. It has been tried by us on various
objects, both by day and by night ; among the latter, the planets
Jupiter and Saturn, several of the most delicate and difticult
double stars, such as Polaris, y Leonis, § Cancri, w* Leonis, &c.
as well as some of the small resolvable nebule in the constella-
tion Virgo; severe tests these of the performance of a telescope,
under magnifying powers from 200. to 700.

The examination of a bright object on a dark ground, as a
card by day-light, or Jupiter by night, with high magnifying
powers affords, as is well known, the severest test of the perfect
achromaticity of a telescope, by the production of green and
purple borders about their edges in the contrary case. The
telescope in question bears these tests remarkably well, and
is certainly more achromatic than usual, a circumstance de-
pending not merely on the nice adjustment of the foci, but on
the quality of the flint glass mainly. This might not have been
expected (according to a remark of Dr. Brewster) from the
high retractive and dispersive power of the glass, but the fact is
undoubted.

The destruction of the aberration of sphericity in an object
glass when thoroughly accomplished, even with the best mate-
rials, is the strongest proof of the goodness of its workmanship ;
but except the materials be good, no excellence of workmanship
will destroy that irradiation which surrounds the image of a star
with lines of light darting from it as a centre, and which fills the:
field with loose dispersed light. The object glass in question is
perfectly free from the latter defect, and almost entirely from
the former. The rudiments of rays may, indeed, be traced in)
interruptions of the regular contour of the rings which surround
the spurious discs of large stars, and which arise from the inter-
ference of the rays grazing the edge of the aperture. | Portions.
of these rings are wanting or very faint, and other portions
somewhat stronger; so that in some directions the outlines of
rings of several orders may be traced,—in others only those of
the first and second. This defect was distinctly perceived in
the image of y Leonis, with a power of 220, giving it the appear-
ance of having an excessively faint small star, almost close to
the large one of the double star; but the inconvenience is so
slight, that without critical attention, its existence would not be.

1826,] by the Council of the Astronomical Society. 443

suspected. It is no way offensive, and can certainly not be
called a serious defect, and might arise from imperfect adjust-
ment. In every other respect the definition of this star, with
the power mentioned, was excellent.

wa Leonis is one of the most difficult double stars in the
heavens. With 220 it was seen elongated: with 700 it was
distinctly seen to consist of two discs in apparent contact. With
this high power, a slight degree of diffusion in the light of the
stars was perceptible, but on the whole the performance of the
telescope was extremely good.

t Cancri was examined with 300, 450, and 700. With the
lowest power it was seen triple, very beautifully defined, and the
close stars distinctly separated. With 450 they were well sepa-
rated, and the black interval distinctly seen, With 700 the
separation remained perfectly distinct.

A minute star was suspected near a? Cancri; but on compar-
ing the diagrams made of it with its real position, it could not
have been the true companion of that very difficult double star,
which to be perceived requires the full power of reflectors of the
largest class.

The companion of Polaris was of course perfectly well seen.

The light of this telescope is, however, amply sufficient for
showing the nebule of Sir W. Herschel’s first class. Several of
these were examined, and the high degree of concentration of
the rays in the focus, arising from the absence of aberration,
proved very valuable, and was evidently marked in the resolvable
appearance exhibited by them.

Saturn was shown with great distinctness, the division of the
ring, and the tliree interior of the old five satellites being plainly
seen. A satellite on the body of Jupiter was also seen as well as
its shadow; and the planetary discs of the other satellites could
not be mistaken for spurious ones.

‘Your Committee consider that the facts above detailed speak
sufficiently for themselves as to the excellence of the telescope
to render comments or praise on their part superfluous ; but they
cannot close this report without observing once more on the great
pains bestowed on its workmanship by Mr. Tulley, and his
address in availing himself of the resources of his art in operat-
ing on a material which might certainly in the beginning be
regarded as highly unpromising.

(Signed) G. DoLLoNp.
J. F. W. HerscueE.,
May 12, 1826. W. Pearson,

The report alluded to above :—

At a meeting of the Committee of the Astronomtcal Society
for reporting on the propriety of purchasing specimens of
M. Guinand’s glass for further trials, held March 17, 1823.

The telescope constructed by Mr, Tulley was produced and

444 Mr. Barlow on the Magnetic Effect induced in Iron [Junx,

examined, and his letter, and that of Mr. Dollond, read; as also
such parts of a correspondence between the Foreign Secretary
and M. Reynier, as appeared necessary.

It was then resolved that it appears to your Committee that
M. Guinand has not answered in a satisfactory manner to the
inquiry put to him through M. Reynier, whether he will engage
to furnish the London artists at a reasonable price, with flint
glass fit for their purposes, inasmuch as he holds out no assur-
ance of a regular supply, and has actually but a very limited
quantity of his glass to dispose of, and that principally in discs
not exceeding four inches in diameter; and your Committee
conceive that no degree of excellence in individual specimens
would authorise them to recommend their purchase by the
Society, unless supported by such assurances of constant sup-
ply as would render it a matter of public interest.
“t Davirs GILBERT.

J.F.W. Herscue..

April 11, 1823. Wo. Prarson.

ArtTicuteE VIII.

Abstracts of Papers in the Philosophical Transactions for 1825,
on the peculiar Magnetic Effect induced in Iron, and on the
Magnetism manifested in other Metals, &c. during the Act of
Rotation. By Messrs. Barlow, Christie, Babbage, and
Herschel. . !

1. On the temporary Magnetic Effect induced in Iron Bodies by
Rotation. By Peter Barlow, Esq. FRS. (With a Plate.)

Mr. Herschel, in a conversation with Mr. Barlow on subjects
connected with magnetism, had inquired what effect Mr. B.
thought might result, from giving to an iron ball a rapid rotation.
The subject, however, dropped, and did not again occur to the
author, until recalled to his mind by some speculative views
which he entertained as to the cause of the rotation of the earth’s
magnetic poles, &c. Being urged to the inquiry by these views,
as well as by Mr. Herschel’s query, and encouraged by the
circumstance that Mr. Christie had found a permanent change
in the magnetic state of an iron plate by a change of position
on its axis, Mr. Barlow resolved to put the idea to the test of
experiment, on a scale that should decide the question in the
first instance. He describes the method he pursued, and the
results he obtained, in the following terms:

«< As goon as I had determined upon the experiment, I found
an excellent opportunity of making the first trial, through the
kindness of Generals Cuppage and Millar, of the Royal Artillery,

bg os Army

EDR TL ST

=~

CE Ff ee,

o
ae |

a '
At

1826.] during the Act of Rotation. 445

who gave me permission to have a 13 inch mortar-shell fixed to
the mandrel of one of the powerful turning lathes worked by the
steam engine in the Royal Arsenal. This having been done, and
the compass-properly placed near the shell, I turned the shell
slowly round, in order to ascertain whether in this case, as in
Mr. Christie’s, there were any effects depending on a change of
position ; butif there were any, they were so small in the cast-iron
shell as not to have been rendered sensible with the small com-
pass I employed. The wheel being now put in. geer, the shell
‘commenced its revolutions at the rate of 640 per minute, and
the needle was deflected out several degrees, at which it
remained perfectly stationary while the ball was in motion ; but
jt returned immediately to its original bearing as soon as the
motion ceased.

« [ now inverted the motion of the shell, and the needle was
deflected about the same quantity the contrary way, observing a
similar steady direction as in the former case ; but as before, it
returned to its original bearing the moment the motion was dis-
‘continued.

< | afterwards found, that the needle being placed in different

- situations, its motion was reversed, although the direction of

motion in the shell was the same; the amount of the whole
deflection also differed very considerably according to the situa-
tion of the compass, its direction in some cases having been
wholly reversed, while in others no perceptible motion was pro-
duced, although the rotation of the shell remained the same both
in direction and in speed. Tine

«| was, therefore, desirous of undertaking a regular set of
experiments, in order to reduce the several apparently anomalous
results to some certain law of action; and as the shell in ques-
tion was rather too heavy for us to feel a perfect security, as to
personal safety, when it was in rapid rotation, and, moreover, as
its effects were larger than seemed necessary for the purpose, I
now selected a Shrapnell shell of eight inches in diameter,
which weighed only 30 lbs. and chose another lathe, whose axis
was nearly north and south, that in the former instance having
been east and west. I had also a table made with a circular
hole in it, which I could place at any height above, below, or
about the centre of the ball; I could also set my compass on
any azimuth on the same, and observe the effects of the direct
and reversed motion; but after several days’ observations, I
found the results so complicated, and the needle so much
influenced by the iron-work of the lathe and other machinery,
that it would be useless to proceed, unless [ could contrive to
produce the rotation out of the way of any disturbing cause of
the kind above-mentioned.”

This Mr. Barlow was enabled to accomplish by means of a
machine delineated in Plate XXXIX, and thus described :

446 Mr. Barlow on the Magnetié Effects induced in Iron [Jun¥,

«© ABCD is a strong wooden frame, resembling that of a
common electrical machine, the shell 8 being hung in the same
manner as the cylinder; the axis is made in two parts of gun
metal, and very strong ; ss are two strong screw bolts and nuts,
which were used for fixing the frame firmly to the top of the
table, the bolt passing through from below. EGF is a substan-
tial table with its feet sunk into the ground, and the floor of the
zoom cut away where they passed through, in order to prevent
any etfect of shaking on the stand carrying the compass.

- The stand consisted of an upright pedestal filled with sand,
to render it steady, and to this was fixed the table ML, witha
semicircular hole cut in it, so that it might be placed near the
shell. This table might be elevated or depressed at pleasure,
and it was divided into the points, quarter-points, &c. of the
compass. .

«« By means of different holes bored in the top of the table,
the machine might be placed N and S, Eand W, &c. at pleasure,
and the motion of the shell be inverted by turning the handle to
the right or left. The large wheel is six times the diameter of
the small one; and as it might easily be turned twice in a
‘second, the number of revolutions of the shell were graduall
about 720 per minute. The little apparatus seen above the shell '
is a small stand and sliding wire, carrying a common lamp-glass,
in which a very small dipping-needle was suspended by silk;
and when the lamp-glass was out of the ring, the latter served
for setting the horizontal needle on, so as to bring it over any
required point of the shell. It should be observed that the
pedestal was moveable, and might therefore be placed on either
side of the machine, The stand and upright figure 2, is one of
two large magnets ultimately employed for neutralizing the
needle.

“The machine being thus prepared, I screwed it down; first
with its axis in the magnetic meridian, and then placed the
compass successively at the several points on the table all round,
and registered the deviation produced at each, with the motion
of the shell direct and reversed. 1 then removed it, and placed
the axis east and west, and again registered in the same manner;
but the results were very irregular with respect to quantity.
Although | obtained some uniformity regarding direction only,
viz. in both cases | found four points of change at about 30°
from each extremity of the axis, or four points of non-action.
For example, when the axis was in the meridian from N 30° Eto
N 30° W, the motion of the needle arising from the rotation
was made to the right. From N 30° W to 8 30° W to the left.
From $ 380° W to 8 30° E to the right. From $ 30° E to N
30° E to the left ; the direction of motion in the shell being the
same; with the direction of motion reversed, the deviation was
reversed also. While at these four points themselves, the needle

1826.] . during the Act of Rotation. . 447

had no motion. I tried also a variety of other positions, but I
could obtain no such results as to lead to a concise expression
of the effect, and for this reason I shall not trouble you with the
detail of them.

“It at length occurred to me, that the reason of my failure
arose from the compound influence under which the needle was
placed, viz. that of the iron ball and of the earth ; I therefore
now neutralized it from the effect of both, by means of magnets
properly disposed, adjusting it always before the rotation to a
direction tangential to the ball, so that whatever effect was pro-
duced at each point, might at least become decided as to its
direction. I now immediately arrived at that kind of general
Jaw [ had been in search of; for I found when things were thus
arranged, that whatever might be the direction of the axis of
rotation, if the motion of the ball were made towards the needle,
the north end of the latter was attracted ; and if from the needle,
the north end was repelled by the iron, the points immediately
in the axis (when of course the motion of the shell was parallel
to the needle) being neutral, or those at which the change of
direction took place; in other words, if the motion of the shell
continue the same, and the compass be successively placed alk
- round the ball, in that semicircle (from one axis to the other) in
which the motion is towards the needle, the north end ap-
proaches the ball, and in the other semicircle it recedes, or the
south end approaches; the points of non-action being in the two
extremities of the axis, and those of maximum effect in two oppo=
site points at right angles to the axis; in which two latter, the
needle, when properly neutralized, points directly to the centre
of the ball.

..“ This will be perhaps better understood by reference to fig. 3,
where S is the shell, a 6 its axis, and 7s, ns, &c. the needle in
its, various positions prior to the motion, and xn’ s’, n’ s’, &c. its
direction as resulting from. the motion; the rotation of the shell
being from ¢ towards d.. of course with the rotation reversed,
the effect will be reversed also.”

_ The author here observes, addressing Mr. Herschel, “ Now
this effect you will, I think, find to be perfectly consistent with
the view you have taken of the subject, in your letter of Jan, 13,
where you say in reference to your former query, and to. the
views lL then entertained, ‘1 should rather have expected a
diminution of the magnetic polarity, commensurate to the
rapidity of rotation and a change in the direction of the mag-
netic axis of the globe, from parallelism to that of the earth, to
a position somewhere intermediate between that and the axis of
rotation, but approaching nearer the latter as the velocity
increased, &c.’

_“ The fact is, that the needle in my experiments being under
noinfluence, prior to the rotation, from either the iron or the earth 3

448 Mr. Barlow on the Magnetic Effect induced in Iron (Jun,

the direction which it takes up in consequence of the motion,
enables us to discover the precise direction of the new forces
thus impressed upon the shell, and it will be seen immediately
to indicate a polarization of the latter in the direction ed; that
is, in a direction perpendicular to the axis of motion, and to the

lane passing through that axis and the actual poles of the ball.

“ You will of course understand that I do not mean that such
a polarization actually takes place; I mean merely that the
cohesive power of the iron is such, as to resist in a certain degree
the inductive powers of the earth, whereby the magnetic forces
are changed, as you have suggested, from their original direc-
tion, parallel to the magnetic axis of the ball, into a. position
oblique to it, which oblique forces being resolved into two, the
one parallel to the original axis, and the other perpendicular to
it, and the former being nearly neutralized by the magnets used
for the purpose in the first instance, the perpendicular forces will
act upon the needle in the same manner as if the ball were
really polarized in the direction above alluded to.

‘« Having got this view of the subject, [soon found that many
of my former results, which appeared to have scarcely any con-
formity among themselves, were perfectly consistent with this
hypothesis: of these the experiments given above, before the
needle was neutralized, may be mentioned. In these I found
the point of change to be at about 30° on each’side of the axis,
s0 that the arcs in which similar effects were produced were
divided into the unequal portions of 60°, 120°, 60°, and 120°,’
which appeared to be anomalous; but according to the view
now taken of the subject, this is perfectly consistent; it is pré-
cisely what ought to happen according to the law, tan. dip. =
2 tan. mag. lat. and which actually takes place on the earth.
That is, in passing from the magnetic equator 30° towards the’
pole, the dipping-needle has actually described a quadrant, as’
referred to its position at the equator; and it would describe a
quadrant, in an opposite direction in going 30° towards the other
pole; so that in passing through 60° the needle is actually’
inverted ; but if we start from mag. lat. 30° through the pole, we
must pass through an are of 120° before the direction of ‘the
needle is inverted, and the same in the other half of the meri-
dian ; and in like manner by referring the motion of my needle
as induced by the rotation of the shell to its original magnetic
direction, it is obvious that I ought to have found, as I actually
did before I was aware of the cause, a point of change at 30°
distance on each side of the meridian passing through the axis 5
which meridian, as respects the induced power, is actually the
eyuator of the new magnetic sphere.

“‘ To render this more obvious, let us refer to fig. 4, in which
A Brepresents the axis of rotation of the shell, the black lines
the needle in its natural direction, and the- dotted lines the

1826.]_ during the Act of Rotation. 449

direction the needle has a tendency to assume according to the
law above-named, in consequence of the magnetism impressed
by the rotation in the line xs. Beginning at the point A, if we
say the motion is from left to right, that is from n to n’, it will
be from right'to left at 60°, 75°, 90°, &c. till we arrive again at
30°; at this point as at the former the new power is exerted in
the actual direction of the needle, and if it were greater than its
natural directive power, it would wholly invert it; in this case
it would pass to either hand; but as the new power cannot
invert it, it has no tendency to deflect it, and it therefore remains
stationary. Thus one of the results which was at first the most
perplexing, serves to confirm the law we have established.

“On similar principles, if we conceive a circle passing verti-

cally from 90° to 90°, and if the needle be perfectly neutralized
at different positions in this circle, and rendered parallel to the
axis at each, then in every case the needle will have a tendency
to take up a position directly at right angles to the axis of the
shell, and it will point in opposite directions at certain parts of
this circle: thus, if to fix the idea we conceive the axis to be in
the meridian, and the motion of the shell from west to east, then
at the east point of the horizon the needle will point to the west,
and it will do the same at all points between the horizon and an
altitude of 60°; beyond this, the north end will point to the east
till we have passed the zenith 30° on the west side; and then
again from this point to the west horizon the north end will
again point to the west; and similar changes will take place
below the ball. This, which is a necessary consequence of our
hypothesis, is completely verified by experiment.
' “Tt is presumed, that what has now been stated is sufficient,
without referring to any further experiments, to establish the
principal fact adverted to in this letter, viz. that when any iron
body 1s put in rapid rotation on any line not coinciding with its
magnetic axis, a temporary derangement takes place in its mag-
netic powers, which in its effects is equivalent to a new axis of
polarization perpendicular to the plane passing through its axis
of polarization and rotation.”

(To be continued.)

New Series, vou, x1. 26

450. Proceedings of Philosophical Societies, [JuUNE,

ArticLe IX.
Proceedings of Philosophical Societies.
ROYAL SOCIETY.

April 27.—A letter from Benjamin Bevan, Esq. to Dr. T.
Young, For. Sec. RS., was read, describing some Experiments
on the Elasticity of Ice.

In this communication, Mr. Bevan first refers to some ex-
periments on this subject, made by him in the year 1824,
in which the modulus of elasticity of ice appeared to be above
6,000,000 feet, with the view of comparing their results with
those he obtained last winter from experiments on a larger
scale. In the latter, a prism of ice 100 inches long, 10 inches
wide, and of the mean thickness of 3:97 inches, being tried
with weights up to 25 pounds, exhibited a deflection of 2°.
of an inch, which gives for the modulus 2,100,000 feet: and
on examining the calculations from his former results, the
author detected an error in the reduction, by the correction of
which he found them to indicate the same modulus as his more
recent experiments. In these, ice of various thickness, from one
and a half inch to four inches, and whether tried on the water,
or taken out and tried in the same way as wood or metal, gave
by computation the same modulus, as in the instance just
related.

Mr. Bevan states that Dr. Young, in his valuable lectures,
has given 700,000 feet for the modulus of elasticity-of water,
computed from Canton’s experiments on the compression of
that fluid; but taking Canton’s results under another point
of view, Mr. Bevan finds the modulus they indicate to be
2,178,000 feet; which very nearly agrees with the result of his
own experiments on the elasticity of ice.

In a note to this paper, Dr. Young states his opinion that
the same modulus should be yielded by solids and by fluids ;
and he also refers to an experiment of his own, made some
years ago, on the sound given by a piece of ice, in which the
modulus did not appear to be greater than 800,000 feet.

A paper was also read, on the application of the Floating
Collimator to the Dublin Circle ; by John Brinkley, DD., FRS. :
communicated by the Board of Longitude.

Dr. Brinkley details, in this paper, the results of an examina-
tion to which he has subjected Capt. Kater’s Floating Colli-
mator: they are favourable in the highest degree to the utility
of the instrument, which belongs, Dr. B. says, rather to a future
age of practical astronomy, than to the present. He finds the

1826.] Royal Society. 451

Collimator to be applicable to any circle, without introducing
any errors whatever of its own.

May 4.—Colonel Mark Wilks was admitted a Fellow of the
Society ; and the following paper was read :

On the means of facilitating the Observation of Distant Sta-

tions, in Geodesical Operations ; by Lieut. T. Drummond, Roy.
Eng.: communicated by Lieut. Col. T. Colby, FRS.
+ A committee of the House of Commons, having recom-
mended to his Majesty’s government in 1824, theaccomplishment
of a new survey of Ireland, which circumstances rendered it
expedient to eflect as speedily as was consistent with accuracy,
Lieut. Col. Colby, whilst engaged in active preparations for
the survey, entrusted to the author the contrivance of means
for obviating the delay which usually occurs in connecting the
Stations in triangulation in this country, from the frequently
unfavourable state of the weather not permitting the ordinary
signals to be seen from distant stations. The delay from this
cause, which had been experienced in the Western Isles of
Scotland, gave reason to apprehend that such would be the case,
to a still greater extent, in Ireland.

To remove this inconvenience, as far as day-observations
were concerned, Lieut. Drummond had recourse, in preliminary
trials, to ¢in-plates, as substitutes for regular Heliostats ; and the
advantages derived, from applying, even in this rough way, the
principle of reflection, as suggested by Prof. Gauss, led to the
invention of an instrument described in the paper, which was
used with much benefit last season, in the survey of Ireland.

Some method of connecting the stations during the night
was also desirable, in order still further to expedite the prose-
cution of the survey. For this purpose, Bengal and white-
lights had formerly been employed by General Roy, but the
use of them had given way to that of Argand lamps, their
light being concentrated, and reflected towards the observers,
by a parabolic mirror. These, however, had been found to
answer but imperfectly; and Col. Colby and Capt. Kater,
when connecting the meridians of Greenwich and Paris, in
1821, with M.M. Matthieu and Arago, employed the light of
an Argand lamp with four concentric wicks, concentrated by a
lens.

This apparatus, however, though well-adapted to light-
houses, for which purpose it had been originally devised by M.
Fresnel, was in many respects objectionable in geodesic
operations ; and the parabolic reflector still appeared to be the
most eligible means of concentrating the light, from whatever
source that might be obtained.

With the view of obtaining a powerfullight, Lieut. Drummond
first tried various pyrotechnical preparations, and afterwards
the combustion of phosphorus in oxygen gas, but he found,

G2

452 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. (June,

in all these, that the light was ill-defined, and otherwise un-
suited to the object in view. He then had recourse to the
light emitted by some of the earths and metallic oxides, when
ignited by the flame of alcohol, urged by oxygen gas. | Taking
the light of the brightest part of the flame of an Argand lamp
as unity, and effecting the comparison by the method of sha-
dows, he found the light given out by quicklime, when under
this treatment, to be equal to 37; that emitted by zircon 31 ;
and that by magnesia 16: oxide of zine was also tried, but it
quickly wasted away, and gave out less light even than mag-
nesia. The best kind of lime for the intended purpose is chalk-
lime, which admits of being turned readily into small. balls,
having a stem, and to which the regularity and truth of surface
can be given, which are essential to the production of the well-
defined image, necessary for the perfect use of the contrivance
in geodesical operations.

This lime, when the experiment is most successful, emits a
light exceeding 83 times that of the brightest part of the flame
of an Argand lamp. In the focus of the parabolic reflector, at
the distance of 40 feet, it is almost too dazzling to look at.

From the perfect success which attended the employment of this
mode of illumination, on one occasion in Ireland, last year, it is
expected that it will enable the officers employed in the survey, to
complete with celerity, and in the most satisfactory manner,
the connection of distant stations. Lieut. Col. Colby pur-
poses to connect, by means of this invention, the meridian of
the observatory on the Calton Hill, at Edinburgh, with that of
Dublin, taking Ben Lomond as an intermediate station ; one
side of the triangle in which operation will measure above 90
miles. Other applications of it are also contemplated.

Lieut. Drummond found that a mixture of hydrogen and
chlorine gases, exposed to the light given out by the lime, was
converted into muriatic acid; and that when the light was
decomposed by a prism, the violet ray it contained had a
marked effect on chloride of silver.

A note addressed to the author by Mr. Herschel was an-
nexed to this paper, stating the results of a cursory optical
examination of the light emitted by the incandescent lime. It
contains all the usual rays, and three of them remarkable in
quantity and quality: viz. a red, intermediate between the red
and orange of the solar spectrum, but nearer to the latter; a
yellow; and a green. Mr. Herschel points out as a curious
fact, that a red of the above character should be yielded by
lime itself, whilst the colour given to burning bodies by the
combinations of that earth is a brick-red, very distinct from
the hue imparted by strontian, which is of a carmine tint.

_ May 11.—Sir J. 8S. Copley, His Majesty’s Attorney-general,
and L. A. Dela Chaumette, Esq. were admitted Fellows of the
Society: A paper was read, On the Production and Formation

1826.] Royal Institution. 453
of Pearls; by Sir E. Home, Bart. VPRS. It is stated, in this

communication, that pearls originate in the blighted ova of the
shell-fish that produce them, and that they afterwards receive a
coat of naker, when the interior of the shell receives its annual
supply.

The reading was commenced, of a paper, On the Burrowing
and Boring Marine Animals ; by Edward Osler, Esq ; commu-
nicated by L. W. Dillwyn, Esq. FRS.; and the Society then
adjourned to the 25th of May.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT
BRITAIN, AT THE FRIDAY-EVENING MEETINGS.

April 28.—Mr. 8. Solly read a paper, on the Porphyry of
Christiania, illustrated by a numerous and curious collection of
specimens, from Professor Esmarck, and by drawings and
engravings.

r. Jopling exhibited and explained in the library, his Sep-
tenary system of lines, produced by continuous motion. He
showed the use of the instruments which had been constructed,
for the application of the system to useful purposes.

Mr. Clowes sent a set of types, plates, and impressions,
relative to his method of printing music in type. The printed
sheets were very clear and correct; and it is in these two points
that the advantage of the plan consists.

May 5.—Mr. Faraday explained in the lecture-room, the
investigations of Mr. Hennel and himself respecting the sulpho-
vinic and sulpho-napthalic acids, and of their salts ; the peculiar
powers of hydro-carbon in these compounds was pointed out,
and the methods of obtaining the acids; their characters being
at the same time illustrated.

On the library-table lay Mr. Perkins’s book of patterns,
produced by eccentric-lathe-turning, and one of his steel plates
and rollers.

May 12.—The subject of the evening was Lieut. Drum-

mond’s Station Light, an account of which has been read before
the Royal Society ; to our report of which we refer. Mr. Fa-
raday explained the nature and particular points of the appli-
cation, from the lecture-table, and then the light was shown in
the reading-room, and compared with that of an Argand lamp,
both being placed in parabolic mirrors. Mr. Drummond’s light
immensely surpassed in brilliancy the Argand lamp.
_ May 19.—Mr. Turrell entered into the history of steel en-
graving, and described the various processes by which steel
was prepared for the engraving; the precautions in decarbonizing
and carbonizing it, in hardening and softening it, were stated ;
and the way was prepared for the process of engraving on steel,
to be explained some other evening.

Mr. Ritchie, of Nain, brought forward two of his new and
ingenious photometers; and Mr, Howship produced an in-

454 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [JunE,

teresting specimen of Burmese art, being an edict written upon
a varnished and highly-gilt leaf. f 5

ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY.

ia

April 14.—The following Address was delivered at a Special
General Meeting of the Astronomical Society of London, held
this day, on presenting the Gold Medals to J. F. W. Herschel,
Esq., J. South, Esq., and Professor Struve, by Francis Baily,
Esq., FRS. LS. & GS. MRIA., and President of the Society.

The Members of the Astronomical Society are convened to-
gether this evening for the purpose of witnessing the distribu-
tion of the Medals, which have this year been awarded by the
Council, agreeably to the powers vested in them for that pur-
pose. The subject, which has called for this public expression
of their opinion and approbation, is that of Double Stars;
which has been pursued with uncommon zeal and energy by
three distinguished members of your body.

The history of this particular branch of astronomy is but of
recent date. For, it cannot be unknown to any of you that
this subject occupied a considerable portion of the time and
attention of our late illustrious President, Sir William Herschel ;
and that, in fact, it was he who first directed the attention of
astronomers to this important branch of the science; havin
himself commenced and carried on, with great ability and dili-
gence, aminute survey of the heavens, for the express purpose
of detecting those almost imperceptible combinations of stars,
which had hitherto escaped the observation of ordinary
observers.

Assisted by his own inventive genius, and the labour of his
own skilful and unerring hand, he contrived and brought to per-
fection telescopes of a size which may be truly termed gigantic,
and possessing powers of vision and penetration far superior to
any that had ever yet been used by astronomers: and with
which he made those astonishing and remarkable discoveries
that have filled the contemplative mind with wonder and ad-
miration.

It did not escape the sagacity of this illustrious astronomer
that these important discoveries, which he was the first to dis-
close to the world, might be made conducive to the investiga-
tion of the parallax of the fixed stars: a subject which has,
from the earliest period, occupied the attention and curiosity of
astronomers. And it was, in fact, this consideration that first
led him to the pursuit of this important branch of astronomy :
but this object was soon lost sight of, in the singular and re-
markable phenomena which he afterwards brought to light.*

* Indeed the obvious use which might be made of such observations had occurred to
Galileo, who first suggested the idea that the apparent distance of two apparently con- °
tiguous stars might perceptibly vary according to the position of the earth in its orbit.

But, his theory was founded on very imperfect and unsatisfactory data: and he himself
-ynade no progress in the solution of this important problem.

1826.] Astronomical Society. 455

Before he commenced his observations, however, he was
desirous of ascertaining what other astronomers had done bes
fore him in the same pursuit. But, not having the facility of
reference to many works, he himself (as he emphatically ex
presses it) opened the Great Book of Nature, and explored that
vast and splendid volume, as the best catalogue that he could
find for the occasion. At the time that he began his important
and interesting inquiries, he was not aware of more than four
stars that came under the description of double stars: yet, with
this small stock he began his pursuit; and, in the course of a
few years, formed a catalogue of 269 double and triple ‘stars,
which he presented to the Royal Society, and which is pub-
lished in the Philosophical Transactions for 1782. In this
Memoir, and in all his subsequent ones, he gave not only the
Distances between the two stars, as measured by various me-
thods, but also the Angle of Position, or the angle formed by
the parallel of declination, and an imaginary line joining the
two stars. These records have now become of considerable
importance, as enabling future observers to compare their results,
and thus determine the change which those quantities have
porn during the interval that has elapsed since they were
made.

Ever ardent in the cause of science, this distinguished astro-
nomer followed up his favourite pursuit by a second collection,
consisting of 434 additional double stars; which was published
in the Philosophical Transactions for 1785.

In the years 1803 and 1804 he communicated to the Royal
Society “ An account of the changes that have happened
during the last 26 years, in the relative situation of double
stars :” and it was in these papers that he first made known to
the world those astonishing and important facts which have so
justly excited the admiration of astronomers. In order to set
this in a clearer light, T would remark that it had been hitherto
a commonly received opinion, that the difference in the appa-
rent magnitude of the fixed stars was caused by the difference
in their distance from the eye of the observer: that a star of
the first magnitude, for instance, was situated nearer to us than
one of the second magnitude ; and this again, nearer to us than
one of the third magnitude; and so on in succession till we
came to the smallest point visible in the most powerful tele-
scopes : and moreover that those apparent combinations of stars,
by twos or by threes, or any larger clusters (numbers of which
present themselves to the eye of the observer) were merely the
consequence of their lying nearly in the same line of vision,
and that they were nevertheless separated from each other by
an immense and immeasurable distance. But this, however
much it may be true in some particular instances, is not univer-
sally the case: for, in the course of the observations alluded to

456 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [Junn,

in the two papers just mentioned, the most remarkable. and
unexpected phenomena presented themselves. The apparent
distances of many of the double stars were found to differ from
what they had been at a former period; at the same time also
that their angles of position were discovered to have undergone
a perceptible variation, and evidently indicating a revolution
round each other. This was the case whether the star hada
considerable proper motion of its own; or whether it was appa-
rently at rest with respect to the other stars around it: thus
showing incontestibly,that the two stars acted on each other
agreeably to the universal law of gravitation.
. In fact, in the language of Messrs. Herschell and South, “ the
existence of binary systems (in which two stars perform to each
other the office of sun and planet) has been distinctly proved ;
and the periods of rotation of more than one such pair ascer-
tained with something approaching to exactness. The immer-
sions and emersions of stars behind each other have been noted;
and real motions among them detected, rapid enough to become
sensible and measurable in very short intervals of time.” The
most remarkable and regular. instance of this kind is that of the
double star Urse Majoris: where the stars perform a revolu-
tion round each other in the short space of 60 years: and
already three-fourths of the circuit has been actually observed
from the first period of its discovery in 1781 to the present day.
The double star p Opiuchz presents also a similar phenomenon,
with a motion in its orbit still more rapid. In this case the two
stars are very unequal in their magnitude. Castor, y Virginis,
z Cancri, ~ Bootis, Serpentis, and that remarkable double star
61 Cygni, together with several others, exhibit likewise the
same progressive increase in the angle of position, The in-
stances are indeed too numerous for me to enlarge upon in this
place; and I allude to them merely with: a view of drawing
your attention to this important and interesting branch of the
science. |
These binary systems, it must be confessed, open a vast field
of inquiry and speculation relative to the true system of the
universe. The mind is lost in the contemplation of such im-
mense bodies performing their revolutions round each other at
such immeasurable distances. Our vast planetary system
-shrinks to a mere point, when compared to the orbits of these
revolving suns. When we consider likewise the remarkable
appearances exhibited by clusters of very minute stars, by ne-
bulous stars and by nebule, and the singular changes which
they seem to be undergoing, and which are too evident to admit
ofa doubt, and too important to be overlooked, we must con-
‘fess that there is still much to learn in the science of astronomy.
It is true that our late illustrious President has drawn some
important inferences from those remarkable appearances which

1826.]> ' Astronomical Society, 457

he was the first'to discover, and has advanced a theory relative
to the system of the universe, which, whether it be realized or
not, (and centuries must elapse before we can even approximate
towards the truth of it,) must ever show the vigour of his bold
and comprehensive mind.

_ The last production of this great man, relative to double
stars, was communicated to this Society in the year 1821; and
is inserted in the first volume of our Memoirs.

Such was the state of this interesting branch of the science
at the time it was taken up by Messrs. Herschel and South.
The singular and extraordinary changes that had been observed
by Sir William Herschel in his review of the heavens in 1802
and 1804, had determined Mr. Herschel to follow up the inten-
tions of his father, by a review of all the double stars inserted
in his catalogues: and as early as 1816 he had commenced this
arduous undertaking. Mr. South also being disposed to pursue
the same inquiry, suggested the plan of carrying on their ob~
servations in concert: and, with the aid of two excellent
achromatic telescopes, belonging to the latter, they employed
the years 1821, 1822, and 1823 in this research. The result
of their labours was presented to the Royal Society, and pub-
lished in the Philosophical Transactions for 1824, at the expense
of the Board of Longitude.

The number of double stars observed jointly by these two
astronomers amounts to 380: and we may judge of their value
and importance when we learn that the authors were more
anxious to obtain accurate results, than to extend the field of
their inquiries in the first instance. But, when we find that,
even to obtain these results, many thousand measurements of
distance and position were made, we must justly admire the
patience and perseverance of the authors in this their laborious,
but highly important pursuit. The remarkable phenomena,
first brought to light by Sir William Herschel, have been abun-
dantly confirmed; and many new objects pointed out as worthy
the attention of future observers.

Whilst these important inquiries were carrying on in Eng-
land, one of our Associates, Professor Struve, was engaged in
similar observations at Dorpat in Russia. The result of his
labours is contained in the several volumes of the Observations
made at that observatory; and will be read with pleasure and.
advantage by every lover of astronomy.* The remarkable
comcidence in most of the measurements made by M. Struve,

_ * Although not immediately connected with the object of this Address, I cannot
omit this opportunity of noticing the labours of M. Amici on double stars. With some
excellent and beautiful telescopes and micrometers of his own workmanship and con-
struction, this indefatigable and careful observer has extended his examination to up-
wards of 200 double stars ; and has detected motions in some of them, not yet noticed
by other astronomers. It is to be hoped that his very valuable labours will be collected
and published, for the benefit of science,

458 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [Junz,

and those made by Sir William Herschel and afterwards by
Messrs. Herschel and South (although with very different in-
struments and micrometers), confirms the general accuracy of
the observations, and marks the degree of confidence that may
be placed in measurements of this kind. Some slight discre-
pancies have indeed been observed on a comparison of the total
results, and some singular anomalies have presented themselves :
but these, so far from invalidating their accuracy, tend to give
them greater confirmation, and may probably, at some future
period, lead to the detection of some hidden law which regu-
lates the motions of these remarkable bodies.

It is for these important observations and discoveries, and
for the great zeal and talent displayed by these distinguished
astronomers, in the pursuit of this interesting subject, that
your Council has resolved to bestow on each of them the Gold
Medal of the Society: and which I have now the honor of
doing.

[The President, then addressing Mr. Herschel, said :] “ In
the name of the Astronomical Society of London, I present to
you this Medal. You will accept it, Sir, as a mark of the deep
mterest which this Society takes in the object of your labors.
Be assured that we are pleased to see (from the Paper pre-
sented to us this evening) that the subject still occupies your
attention, and that it is likely to be pursued with so much
energy and zeal, by one who can so fully appreciate the im-
portance of such inquiries, and who is so competent to conduct
investigations of this kind. We trust that you will have health
and strength to pursue the path which you have thus com-
menced with so much honor to yourself, and so much benefit
to science. Inheriting, as you do, those rare and exalted
talents which distinguished your venerable and honored father,
and aided by the resources of your own powerful and enlight-
ened mind, you have already opened another and very interest-
ing field of inquiry and research in this particular branch of
astronomy, by proposing a new method of applying such observa-
tions to the investigation of the parallax of the fixed stars: a
subject which cannot be fully appreciated till after the lapse of
many years, and which we hope will not be lost sight of by
those who are engaged in investigations of this kind. The
name of Herschel, doubly connected as it thus is, with the
history of astronomy, can perish only with all records of the
science. The splendid example of the father has been emu-
lated by the son: and you have the proud and enviable satis-
faction of knowing that you will share the glory of his immortal
name.”

(The President next presented the Medal to Mr. South ina
similar manner, and said :] “ In presenting you with this Medal,
Sir, I can only repeat the sentiments which I have just deli-

1826.] Astronomical Society. 459

vered to your friend and fellow-labourer Mr. Herschel.’ The
ardent zeal which you have always evinced in the cause of
astronomy, the patience and perseverance which you have
shown in conducting so many and so valuable observations, of
no ordinary kind, and the skill and accuracy which you have
displayed in those delicate measurements, are subjects that are
duly estimated by this Society. Possessed of a princely col-
lection of instruments, of exquisite workmanship and consi-
derable magnitude, such as have never yet fallen to the lot of
a private individual, you have not suffered them to remain idle
in your hands, but have set an example to the world how much
may be done by a single person, animated with zeal in the
cause of science. Scarcely indeed have those labors issued
from the press, for which this Society is now assembled to
congratulate you, than they have been followed by a commu-
nication of others (now lying on the table) rivalling them in
magnitude and importance ; extending your examination to 460
additional stars (many of which are new), and confirming in a
satisfactory manner the remarkable changes which had been
‘noticed in your previous review. The subject which you have
thus commenced with so much success, with so much benefit
‘to science and so much honor to yourself, is as vast as it is
‘important. The number of double and triple stars seems to
increase with the attention that is paid to them: and already
‘their amount is sufficient to appal an ordinary observer. Boldly
‘pursuing the path of science your energy has, however, in-
‘creased with your difficulty; so that few of these singular
‘bodies have escaped your patience and penetration: and the
Society hope and trust that the same talents will be exerted in
a further prosecution of the subject. There is no doubt but
that a careful examination and re-examination of these remark-
able bodies will tend to throw some new and interesting light
on the system of the universe: and it must ever be a pride and
satisfaction to you to reflect that you have been instrumental
in advancing the boundaries of this department of science,
and that your own name will always stand conspicuous in the
history of these discoveries.”

[The President afterwards presented the Medal, in a similar
manner, to Mr. Herschel, as proxy for Professor Struve, and
addressed him as follows:] “ Assure M. Struve of the lively
interest which we take in all that is passing at the Observatory
of Dorpat: that we admire the patience, the exertions and the
address, with which he has overcome the difficulties he has had
to encounter, in the progress of his discoveries: and that we
look forward with confidence to a continuance of the same
brilliant career in the cause of astronomy. Furnished, as he
now is, with one of Fraunhofer’s colossal telescopes, and thus

460 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [JuNE,

armed with the most powerful means, we anticipate the most
successful results from his laborious exertions. Unconscious
of what was going forward in this country, he had opened for
himself a vast field of inquiry, which he has pursued with
the most splendid success ; and which places his name amongst
the most celebrated of modern astronomers. The Paper which
has been read to us, this evening, shows that his ardor is
unabated: since he there announces the important fact of the
observation of 1000 double stars of the first four classes (most
of which are entirely new), and amongst which are 300 of the
first class. To a mind, formed lke his for the pursuit of
science, little need be said to animate him to a continuance of
his labors: but, it may be pleasing to him to know that we are
alive to the progress of his discoveries: and I am sure that you
will convey to him, in much better terms than I can do, the ex-
pressions of our esteem and admiration for his services in the
cause of science ;—services which assure us that the name of
Struve will be imperishable in the annals of astronomy.”

At this meeting was also read, “ A Comparison of Ob-
servations made on Double Stars.” Communicated in a
letter to J. F. W. Herschel, Esq, Foreign Secretary to this So-
ciety, by Professor Struve, of Dorpat. Addressing himself to
Mr. Herschel, M. Struve, says, ‘‘ You may easily imagine with
what interest I have perused the work on double stars, by your-
self and Mr. South, and with what pleasure I found that, inde-

endently of one another, we have arrived at the same results
and deductions. Although my instruments were formerly in-
ferior to yours, with respect to measurements (as I could only
observe differences of AR on the meridian, and angles of po-
sition with a 5-feet telescope of Troughton), they may be con-
sidered in an optical point of view equal to yours; viz. the
5-feet telescope of Troughton’s to yours attached to the 5-feet
equatorial; aud the 8-feet one of Dollond to yours attached
to the 7-feet equatorial ; and after receiving the repeating mi-
crometer of Fraunhofer, which I fixed to Troughton’s telescope,
every desideratum in this instrument was fulfilled.”

. Struve, however, found himself involved in some prac-
tical difficulties, until the arrival of Fraunhofer’s large re-
fractor, an instrument which, with respect to double stars, left
him nothing further to wish; and he determined on a new ex-
amination of all the double stars observed before (whether by
Sir W. Herschel, Messrs. Herschel and South, or himself,) as
well as on a minute inquiry of the heavens from the north
pole to — 15° of declination, with respect to these objects.
He has now accomplished one-third of the labour, and has
found 1000 double stars of the first 4 classes ; among which 800

1826.] © Geological Society. 461

are new, and of these nearly 300 are of the first class. He
extends the examination to all stars of the 8th and (8°9) mag-
nitude.

The author, after detailing a few more preliminary remarks,
enters into a comparison of many of his observations with those
of Sir W. Herschel, and of Messrs. Herschel and South, point-
ing out many cases in which their coincidence is truly re-
markable ;—others in which there are discrepancies, evidently
attributable to the relative or real motions of the stars in the
intervals between the observations ;—others in which the di-
versities seem occasioned by the instruments employed ;—and
‘others in which there are anomalies which do not, as yet, admit
of explanation. This part of M. Struve’s communication is
not susceptible of abridgement. 7

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

May 5.—The reading of Dr. Bigsby’s paper, on the Geology
of the Valley of the St. Lawrence, was continued and con-
cluded.

In the first part of this paper, the author describes the generat

form of the country, in which are placed the great lakes of
Superior, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, with a sketch of some of
the rocks occurring in their vicinity.
_ He then examines the question of the present level of their
waters, as compared with their ancient level, and enumerates
many circumstances to prove that no recent alteration has taken
place. He then endeavours to establish, that the Canadian
lakes are monuments of the last flood, by the features of the
country, the abrasion of its rocks, and the nature of the trans-
ported matter. He ascribes the shape of the Islands of Lake
Superior, and of the Promontory of Keweewoonan, to. diluvial
denudation. The Manitouline gaps are adduced as effects of
one simultaneous deluge.

Dr. Bigsby divides the debris of the St. Lawrence Valley
into four classes :—1l. Diluvial; 2. Messalluvial ; 3. Alluvial ;
4. Native.

1, The diluvium lies usually in extensive flattened heaps.
Cape Tourment, 1800 feet above the level of the sea, is covered
with it. Marine shells, of the genus Saaicava, are found in the
Ottawa, 300 miles N.N.W. of Montreal.

The actual position of numerous primitive bowlders on the
plains being south and south-east of their original sites, in-
dicates that the flood proceeded from the north and north-west,
or, in a direction contrary to the present course of the St. Law-
rence. The trap of Montreal is found at Lake Champlain, and
bowlders of tabular spar (one of which weighs 600 pounds) are
traced to the west end of Ontario, where the Ophicalcic rock
is also seen in broken masses. The chalcedonies from Lake
Superior have been transported south-west to Lake Pepin. The

462: Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [June, |

south and west shores of the Lake of the Woods are loaded.
with bowlders, whilst the opposite shore is destitute of them.
These evidences of denudation are given as coinciding with the
views of Saussure, De Luc, and Buckland.

2. The Messaluvion is presumed to have been formed in the
intermediate state of the earth, which it assumed between its
total submergence and its present form. At that period, cen-
tral North America is imagined to have been occupied by one
great lake; and the author’s evidences to prove this, con-
sist of, 1. The series of embankments, and 2. their being com-
posed of adjacent rocks, and even of fresh-water materials.
3. Rolled masses of neighbouring lakes being reciprocally found
in each other. 4. The peculiar nature of the sand and gravel,
beneath the mould of the Valley of the St. Lawrence. 5, The
mountain-barriers broken through for the passage of rivers and
lakes. 6. The analogy of this supposed reservoir to those
which have been traced in Germany, Scotland, &c. ‘This enor-
mous lake, or rather insulated portion of the ocean, must have
extended, in the north, from Hudson’s Bay to below Quebec:
the eastern boundary being the Allighany range: the western
the diluvial hills near the Rivers St. Peter, Red, and Missouri:
whilst the waters contained therein must have stood at 1000
feet above the level of the sea.

That the fluid of this great reservoir was saline, is inferred
from many genera of fish, of marine origin, being now the in-
habitants of the lakes; which latter are presumed to have been
converted into fresh-water by various operations of drainage,
&c. Large fresh-water deposits are instanced, as occurring on
lakes Huron and Simcoe, extending to Ontario and Erie,
Some of the higher beds of these, in the interior, contain
Uniones, like those of the present lakes: they are never in a
fossil state, and are associated with Planorbes, Physa, Lymnee,
Melanie, &c. The banks of the lakes are usually constituted
of several steps or terraces, which the author attributes to the
various depressions of the waters, occasioned by excessive
injuries to the enbankments; but with respect to the great
primary lake, he inclines to the belief of its reduction to a
sroup by one great disruption. The chaudieres, or pot-like
cavities, are described in many situations, and the . fluted
channellings of various rocks are farther adduced, as exhibiting
the abrasive power of water.

The 3d class, or the alluvial depositions, offer nothing
remarkable. The 4th class, or the native debris, is derived
from the disimtegration of the subjacent, or primitive rocks,
The. Nipissing, Lake Huron, &Xc. offer many examples, the
materials composing which appear never to have travelled far,
but always to have been derived from the contiguous rocks,
being unaltered in their outline and angles. La a

The paper concludes with the description of a limestone cave

1826.] - £oological Society. 463

near New Lanark, in Upper Canada, containing bones of
various quadrupeds, the larger of which are supposed to have
been carried in by a smaller animal, and of the effects of whose
teeth there are evident marks.

May 19.—A paper was read, entitled, Notes on the Geolo-
gical Position of some of the Rocks of the N. E. of Ireland ; by
Lieut. Portlock, Roy. Eng. FGS.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

We are happy to be able to announce the complete organiza-
tion of this Society, the establishment of which has been for some
time in contemplation. A meeting of the friends of the Society
took place at the Rooms of the Horticultural Society on the
29th April, at which upwards of 100 noblemen and gentlemen
were present. Among them we noticed—

The Marquess of Lansdowne, Lords Darnley, Egremont, Gage,
Auckland, Stanley, Clinton, the President of the Board of Con-
troul, the President of the Royal Society, the Right Hon. the
Lord Mayor, Sir Thomas Dyke Ackland, Sir Robert Inglis, Sir
Everard Home, Sir R. C. Fergusson, Sir Stamford Raffles, the
Hon. Mr. Twisselton Fiennes, General Thornton, Dr. Goode-
nough, Mr. W. Hamilton, Mr. H.T. Colebrooke, Mr. Children,
of the British Museum, Mr. Duncan, of the Ashmolean Museum,
Oxford, Mr. P. Duncan, ditto, Mr. Lambert, Mr. Marsden, Mr.
Sotheby, the Rev. Mr. Benson, Mr. Vigors, Dr. Harwood, Dr.
Horsfield, Mr, Barnard, Mr. Clift, Mr. Murchison, Capt. De
Capel Brooke, Dr. Waring, Mr. Stephens, the Rev. Mr. Rackett,
Mr. Haworth, Mr. Griffiths, the Rev. Mr. Hope, &c.

Sir Stamford Raffles having been called to the Chair, a series
of resolutions were proposed, and passed unanimously, for the
organization of the Society ; and the following President, Coun-
cil, and Officers, appointed :—

President.—Sir Stamford Raffles, President, LL.D. FRS. &c.

His Grace the Duke of Somerset, LL.D. FRS. &c.; Most
Noble the Marquess of Lansdowne, FRS. &c.; Right Hon. the
Earl of Darnley, FRS. &c.; Right Hon. the Earl of Egremont,
FRS. &c.; Right Hon. Viscount Gage, MA. &c.; Right Hon.
Lord Auckland; Right Hon. Lord Stanley, MP. VPLS. &c. ;
Sir Everard Home, Bart. VPRS. &c.; C. Barnard, Esq. FLS. &c.;
J. E. Bicheno, Esq. Sec. LS. &c.; J..G. Children, Esq. FRS.;
&e.; H. T. Colebrooke, Esq. FRS. &c.; Rev, Dr. Goodenough,
FRS. &c. ; G. B. Greenough, Esq, FRS. &c.; Major-General
Hardwicke, FRS: &c.; Thomas Horsfield, MD. FLS. &c.;
Joseph Sabine, Esq. FRS. Treas. ; Charles Stokes, Esq. FRS.&c.;
N. A. Vigors, Esq. MA. FRS. &e. Sec.; C. Baring Wall, Esq.
MP. &e. ae
_ The President then read an opening address to the meeting,
explanatory of the past and present state of Zoology in this

464 Scientific NoticesZoology. (June,

country, and of the objects and views of the Society. We hope
to have it in our power to present our readers with this address
in a future number.

In addition to the members mentioned above as present at
the first meeting, the Society already numbers amongst its most
zealous supporters the following distinguished personages :—

His Royal Highness the Duke of Sussex, the Dukes of
Somerset, Northumberland, and Bedford ; the Marquesses of!
Hertford, Salisbury, and Stafford; Earls Carnarvon, Caledon,
Gower, Hardwicke, Lonsdale, Malmsbury, Mountnorris, Minto,
Spencer, Stanhope, Winchelsea, Oxford, and Grosvenor ;, Vis-
count Dudley and Ward, Viscount Gage; the Bishops of Bath
and Wells, London, and Carlisle; Lords Calthorpe, Clifton,
Downe, Ducie, Ellenborough, Leveson Gower, Holland, Lovaine,
and Selsey ; Right Hon. C. Arbuthnot, Right Hon. Sir C. Long,
Right Hon. Sir G. Rose, Right Hon. Robert Peele, Right Hon.
Sir J. Leach, Right Hon. the Lord Mayor, Right Hon. John
Beckett, Right Hon. F. C. Robinson, Hon. Col. Bligh, Hon. G,
Agar Ellis, Hon. Capt. Percy, Hon. W. 8. Ponsonby, Hon. R.
Stopford. Hon. and Rev. Dr. Wellesley, Sir H. Bunbury, Sir
C. H. Coote, Sir 8. Graham, Sir R. Heron, Sir B. Hobhouse,
Sir W. Jardine, Sir J. Shelley, Sir G. T. Staunton, Sir J. Croft,
Sir F. Baker, Sir Thomas Lawrence, Sir W. F. Middleton, Sir
W. Rawson, Sir P. C. Silvester, Admiral Sir C. Pole, Sir J. E.
Smith, Sir H. Halford, John Wilson Croker, Esq. MP. Alexan-
der Baring, Esq. MP. Richard Heber, Esq. the a4 Dr. Good-
all, the Rev. William Kirby, Francis Chantrey, Esq. Alexander
Mac Leay, Esq. William Sharpe Mac Leay, Esq. the Dean of
Carlisle, &c. E. W. B.

ARTICLE X.

SCIENTIFIC NOTICES.

Zoouoey.

1. On the Discovery of Live Cockles in a Peat Moss distant from
the Sea.

Ar the meeting of the Wernerian Society on the 19th of Nov.
last, Henry Witham, Esq. read a very interesting paper, “ On the
Discovery of Live Cockles in Peat-Moss, at a great Distance
from the Sea, and much above its present Level.” These shells
were discovered in the month of October last, in Yorkshire, about
forty miles from the sea-coast, in the course of a mineralogical
excursion by Mr. Witham through that county. He was led to
the spot by a tradition which prevailed in the country of this
anomalous occurrence, and found the cockles alive in the sandy
bottom of a drain which had been formed through the moss.

1826.} Scientific Notices—Zoology. 465

This peat-moss is situate about a mile and a half, or two miles
(we understood him to say) from Greta Bridge, and about two
miles from the river Tees. That cockles had existed in that
spot for a period of unknown antiquity is ascertained from the
name of the farm in which this peat moss occurs, and which it
has borne for centuries—Cocklesbury. Specimens of the cockles
were laid on the table by Mr. Witham, and of the sand in which
they burrowed; and live specimens would have been exhibited,
but from the circumstance of the ditch being frozen over when a
friend visited the place for the purpose of procuring them. The
cockles are found in considerable quantity. Mr. W. gathered a
number, and even had the curiosity to eat some of them. They
differed but little in taste from the common cockle, unless it were
that they seemed not quite so salt.

The specimens of the shells exhibited by Mr. Witham, and
of which the writer of this notice, by the kindness of that gentle-
man, is in possession of one, agree in every respect with those
found on most of our sandy shores—the Cardium edule of
Linneus. They are of the ordinary size, and nothing in their
external appearance would lead any one to suspect they were
from a locality so very different. With the exception of one
instance, which has been pointed out to us by a scientific friend,
nothing similar, as far as has come to our knowledge, has been
remarked before ; though the publication of Mr. Witham’s dis-
covery, by directing attention to the subject, may lead to
the knowledge of collateral facts. The instance alluded to is
found inthe Description of Zetland, by John Brand, published in
1701; and as the statement is interesting, and the book in
which it occurs of considerable rarity, we give the passage
in the words of the author:

“ A gentleman, in the parish of Dunrossness, told one of the
ministers in this country, that about five years since, a plough in
this parish did cast up fresh cockles, though the place where the
plough was going was three-quarters of a mile from the sea;
which cockles the gentleman saw made ready and eaten. How
these shell fishes came there, and should be fed at such a dist-
ance from their ordinary element, I cannot know, if they have
not been cast upon land by a violent storm, much of the ground
of this parish, especially what they labour, lying very low, and
the sea hath been observed in such storms both to cast out stones
and fishes ; or if these cockles have been found in some deep
furrow, from which to the sea there hath been a conveyance by
some small stream, upon which the sea hath flowed in stream
tides, especially when there is also some storm blowing. Ifonly
shells were found, such as of oysters and the like, the marvel
would not be great, secing such are found upon the tops of high
mountains, at a greater distance from the sea, which, in all pro-
bability, have been there since the universal deluge ; but that

New Series, vou. XI. 2H

466 Scientific Notices—Zoology. [Junz,

any shell-fish should be found at some distance from the sea,
and fit for use, is somewhat wonderful and astonishing.”*

When Dr. Hibbert was recently in Shetland, he was led by
this curious passage to make inquiry on the spot regarding these
cockles, but could procure no information on the subject ; and
the surface of the soil being covered to some depth by drifted
sand precluded further investigation.

Prof. Wallace, it may be mentioned, found oyster shells in
Bagshot Heath, too recent in appearance to be characterized as
fossil, of which the origin is not known ;} and modern experi-
ment has proved that shell-fish may be transferred from salt
to fresh water with impunity, though it is difficult to believe that
the ingenuity of our ancestors exerted itself in providing such
articles of luxury in such a way. The fact observed and related
by Mr. Witham, therefore, of live cockles being found at 4 dist-
ance so considerable from the sea, and at such a height above
its level, can only be accounted for by the retrocession of the
ocean—or by supposing some great convulsion to have submerged
the land, and left these evidences of its effects. In any view, the
discovery is interesting, and similar occurrences will probably
Jead to a modification of the prevailing theories. If the shells
in question had not been found alive, it might have been conjec-
tured that they had been deposited there at a very distant

eriod, by one of those catastrophes which are supposed to have
changed the bed of the ocean, or floated its astonished inhabi-
tants over the land, and an unknown and mysterious antiquity
thus assigned to shells which might have been alive shortly
before. That similar circumstances have, on more occasions
than one, misled observers, we have little doubt. We have seen
specimens of shells from the banks of Lochlomond, which seem,
from their appearance, to be in this predicament; and instead
of supposing that these were the remains of animals which had
been left there when Lochlomond joined the eastern and western
seas, we should conjecture that they had recently lived and died
in the very lake on the banks of which they were found.

In the paper, by Mr. J. Adamson, which gave an account of
the shells thus found, and which is printed in the Wernerian
Transactions, vol. iv. p. 334, that gentleman says, that “ the
shells begin to appear about half-way between the highest and
lowest, or the winter and summer surfaces of the water, which

* A Brief Description of Orkney, Zetland, Pightland-Firth, and Caithness, &c,
By John Brand, pp. 115, 116. Edinburgh, 1701.

+ [Is it not more probable that these oysters were fossils belonging to the Upper Marine
Formation, of which the Bagshot sand forms a member ? For although Mr. Warburton
states that the shelly matter of the fossil shells which certain beds in the Bagshot sand
contain has altogether perished, yet in the corresponding deposits of the crag in Suffolk,
and the upper marine formation in the Isle of Wight, many of the shells can scarcely be
distinguished from recent ones. All these deposits, it will be remembered, agree with
the upper marine formation of the Paris basin,—E. W. B. ]

1826.] Scientific Notices— Miscellaneous. 467

varies in this respect about six feet. After removing a slight
covering of coarse gravel, we find a thin bed of clay, of different
shades of brown, passing into yellow colours, as we descend. In
the upper, or brown clay, are found shells of the following spe-
-cles:—Those marked with an asterisk are doubtful. Buccinum
reticulatum,* Nerita glaucina, Tellina tenuis,* Cardium edule,
Venus striatula, Venus Islandica, Nucula rostrata, young, Pec-
ten obsoletus, Anomia Ephippium, young, Balanus communis,
Balanus rugosus, Echinus esculentus.
“A skilful conchologist would discover many others, from the
numerous traces of them in the clay. Those shells appear to
‘have been deposited generally in an entire state, and many are
found: with both valves in their natural position. The Balanus
is still slightly attached to the Venus or Pecten; and the spines
of the Echinus are found clustered in the clay inclosing its
fragments; so that they must have been either covered by
-water to a considerable depth, or thrown on a beach not much
exposed to waves. Few of them, however, can be extracted
entire, as several of the species are always in a state of gritty
chalk; but many complete and beautiful specimens of the Pec-
ten can easily be procured. Few of their fragments appear on
the exposed part of the beach, but, during summer, many may
be seen a few feet under water.”
We lately received several specimens of the Buccinwm
Lapillus from Shetland, which were found alive on the margin
of a lake in the island of Yell; about a mile and a half from the
sea. The lake has an outlet by a small rivulet. The shells are
somewhat thinner in their texture than their congeners on the
rocks of the neighbouring coast, and are all of the banded
variety of that shell, or crossed with dark-coloured lines. That
these shells had been carried to that locality by water-fowl is
“not unlikely ; and the outer lip of the shells being somewhat
broken, may have occurred in the attempt to extract the animal
as food. But the fact of the animals being alive when the spe-
cimens were picked up, goes to prove that shell-fish may be
brought to live in fresh-water; and the experiments undertaken
by Mr. Arnold, of Guernsey, at the suggestion of Dr. Mac Cul-
loch, and the discovery of tes cockles at a distance from the sea
by Mr. Witham, leave little room to doubt that many species of
fish may be transported to, and live and propagate in, inland
fresh-water ponds and rivulets.—(Edin. Journ. of Science.)

MiscEeELLANEOUS.

2. Query respecting Sound, said to be produced by the Rupture of
the Tendo Achillis.
GENTLEMEN, April 26, 1826,
Mr. Stanley, in an Anatomical reel delivered in the Theatre
2H

468 Scientific Notices— Miscellaneous, [Junez,

at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital on the 1st of March, said, when
speaking of the rupture of the tendo achillis, “it sometimes
happens when a person is dancing, and so loud a noise is pro-
duced by it, as to be distinctly heard at the other end of the
room. This may be urged as an argument in favour of the
opinion, that sound 2s a distinct substance, and not the result of
the vibrations of the air, as some have supposed ; for here is
sound produced in a situation to which the air has not access.”

Not being able to reconcile this observation with what I
understand to be the opinion entertained by modern philoso-
phers, | take the liberty of addressing you on the subject; and
if through the medium of your valuable journal, you will inform
me how far Mr. Stanley’s notion be correct, it will oblige,

Gentlemen, yours, &c.
A BarTHOLOMEW’s PupPIL.

*,* We are quite as much at aloss to comprehend Mr. Stan-
ley’s doctrine (if it be correctly stated) as our correspondent.
Wepublish the Bartholomew’s Pupil’s letter, therefore, that Mr.S.
may, if he please, enter more fully into an explanation of his
views concerning sound, in our next, or any future number of the
Annals of Philosophy.—Ed.

3. Phosphorescent Plants.

Several cryptogamous subterraneous plants have been observed
to be luminous in the dark. M. Nees, of Esenbeck, cites after
M. Heinzmann, the rhizomorpha phosphorescens found in the
mines of Hesse, in the north of Germany : the light is visible at
the extremities of the plant, especially when it is broken. This
phosphorescence disappears in hydrogen gas, oxide of carbon,
and chlorine gas. Some other rhzzomorpha, as the subterranea
and the atdula, have also appeared phosphorescent to several
persons working in the mines.—(Journal de Pharmacie.)

4. Raining Trees.

In the ancient histories of travellers in America, and
also by Thévet in his Cosmographia, mention is made of a tree
which attracted the clouds from the heavens, and converted
them into rain in the dry deserts. These relations have been
considered as fables. There has been lately found in Brazil a
tree, the young branches of which drop water, which fall almost
like ashower. ‘This tree, to which Leander has given the name
of cubca pluviosa, is transferred by M. Decandolle to the genus
Casalpinia (pluviosa), in his Prodomus, vol. ii. p. 483. Also
many vegetables, as the calamus rotang, and tender climbing
plants, the vine, and other twigs, at the season of sap, par-
ticularly when they are cut, weep abundantly. This genus
Ceesalpinia, which furnishes the dyeing wood of Fernambuco

ee ee

1826.] © Scientific Notices— Miscellaneous. 469

and Sappan, presents also a species, the leaves of which are
almost as sensible to the touch as the sensitive plants at Ma-
labar; it is the Cesalpinia mimosoides, Lamarck.—(Journ. de

Pharm.)
5. On the Poisoning of Plants.

Plants are liable to lose, as Carraduri has seen, by distilled
oleander water, their power of contraction;. thus this water, or,
even better, the volatile oil of oleander, extinguishes all the power
of contraction of the capsule of momordica elaterium, and of bal-
samina impatiens. Mr. Marcet, of Geneva, having soaked sensi-
tive and other plants in an aqueous solution of opium, remarked
that it also extinguished the action of vegetable life. Thence
Carradori concludes, that plants have contractable muscular
fibres. Mr. Marcet has thought that vegetables also possess
something analogous to a nervous system, since the first of these
poisons acts on contraction, the second on the sensibility in
animals.—(Journ. de Pharm.)

6. Distribution of Land and Water.

From the unequal distribution of the continents and seas, the
southern hemisphere has long been represented as eminently
aquatic ; but the same inequality makes its appearance, when
we consider the globe divided, not in the direction of the equa
tor, but in that of the meridians. The great masses of land are
collected between the meridians of 10° to the west, and 150° to
the east of Paris; while the peculiarly aquatic hemisphere com-
mences to the westward with the meridian of the coasts of
Greenland, and terminates to the east with the meridian of the
eastern shores of New Holland and the Kurile Isles. This
‘unequal distribution of the land and water exercises the greatest
influence upon the distribution of heat at the surface of the globe,
upon the inflexions of the isothermal lines, and upon the pheno-
mena of climate in general, With reference to the inhabitants
of the centre of Europe, the aquatic hemisphere may be called
western, and the terrestrial hemisphere eastern; because in pro-
‘ceeding westward, we come sooner to the former than to the
latter. Until the end of the 15th century, the western hemisphere
was as little known to the inhabitants of the eastern hemisphere
as one-half of the lunar globe is at present, and probably will
always remain to us. Humboldc.—(Edin. Phil. Jour.)

7. Corrigenda.
M. Del Rio has. had the goodness to point out one or twa
errors in the translation of his paper, ‘‘ On the Analysis of an

Alloy of Gold and Rhodium, from the Parting House at
‘Mexico,* which we are anxious to correct. Lor “from the

* Annals, vol, x. New Series, October, 1825.

470 New Scientific Books. — » [JUNE,

fused silver ingots,” p. 254, 1. 7 and 8, read “ from the silver.
ingots obtained by fusion.” For “as if we employed more than
one (acid), and they were very volatile and easily decomposed,”
p- 255, 1. 16 and 17 from bottom, read “ as if more than one
acid were used, and that very volatile and easily decomposed.”
For “ worth 1800 piastres,” p. 256, 1. 12, read “ the sum of 1800
piastres.”— Ed. At AG

ArtTIcLeE XI.
NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.

PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION,

The Hunterian Oration, delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons,
by Sir Anthony Carlisle, containing the Natural History of the Oyster,
and some of the principal points in its Anatomy.

A Letter to Mr. Thomas Brown, Surgeon, Musselburgh, containing
Remarks on his “ Letter to the Right Hon. the Earl of Liverpool,
concerning the present State of Vaccination.” By Henry Edmond-
ston, MA. Surgeon, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. : Ai

A Treatise on the Nature and Cure of Rheumatism, with practical
Remarks on Neuralgia, or painful Affection of Nerves. By Charles
Scudamore, MD.

Mr, 1. W. Dewhurst has in the Press a Dictionary of Anatomy and
Physiology ; also another work to be entitled, Synoptical Tables of the
Materia Medica.

JUST PUBLISHED.

The Second Volume of Dr. Bostock’s Elementary System of Physio-
logy. 8vo. 16s.

Travels in Chile and La Plata, including Accounts respecting the
Geography, Geology, Statistics, &c. and the Mining Operations in
Chile. By John Miers. 2 vols. 8vo. with Maps and Plates.

The Surgeon Dentist’s Anatomical and Physiological Manual, By
G. Waite. 5s. 6d.

Practical Botany, an improved Arrangement of British Plants, with
a familiar Introduction to the Linnean System. By W. Johns, MD.
FLS. &c. Post 8vo. 9s. *

Gleanings of Chemistry, illustrating the Nature of Air, Water, Light,
Heat, &c. Post Svo. 6s. 6d.

Historical Researches on the Wars and Sports of the Mongols and
Romans, in which Elephants and Wild Beasts were employed or slain,
and the remarkable local Agreement of History with the Remains of
such Animals found in Europe and Siberia. By John Ranking, Resi-
dent upwards of Twenty Years in Hindostan and Russia. 4to. With
Map and Plates. 3/. 3s.

No. 8, of the Zoological Journal, with No. 2, of the Supplementary
Plates: conducted by Thomas Bell, Esq. FLS.; J.G. Children, Esq.
FR, and LS.; J. D.C. Sowerby, Esq. FLS. ; and G. B. Sowerby, FLS,

a

1826.] New Patents, 471

ARTICLE XII.
NEW PATENTS.

J. Billingham, Norfolk-street, Strand, civil engineer, for an improve-
ment or improvements in the construction of cooking apparatus.—
April 18.

. Rowbotham, Great Surrey-street, Blackfriars-road, hat manufac-
turer, and R. Lloyd, Strand, for a certain method of preparing, uniting,
combining, and putting together, certain materials, substances, or
things, for the purpose of being made into hats, caps, bonnets, cloaks,
coats, trowsers, and for wearing apparel in general, and various other
purposes:—A pril 18.

W. Wood, Summer Hill Grove, Northumberland, for an apparatus
for destroying the inflammable air in mines.—April 22.

J. P. Gillespie, Grosvenor-street, Newington, for a new spring or
combination of springs, for the purpose of forming an elastic resisting
medium.—A pril 25.

S. Brown, Eagle Lodge, Old Brompton, for improvements on an
engine for effecting a vacuum, and thus producing powers by which
water may be raised, and machinery put in motion.—April 25.

F. Halliday, Ham, Surrey, for an apparatus for preventing the incon-
venience arising from smoke in chimneys.—April 25.

J. Williams, Commercial-road, ironmonger and ship’s fire hearth
manufacturer, for improvements on ships’ hearths, and apparatus for
cooking by steam.—April 27.

W. Choice, Strahan Terrace, auctioneer, and R. Gibson, White
Conduit Terrace, builder, Islington, for improvements in machinery for
making bricks.—April 27.

C. Kennedy, Virginia Terrace, Great Dover-road, Surrey, surgeon
and acne for improvements in the apparatus used for cupping.
— April 29,

J. Goulding, Cornhill, London, engineer, for improvements in the
machines used for carding, stubbing, slivering, roving, or spinning
wool, cotton, waste, silk, short stapled hemp and flax, or any other
fibrous materials, or mixture thereof.—May 2.

A. Buffurn, Javin-street, hat-manufacturer, and J. M‘Cardy, Cecil-
street, Strand, for improvements in steam engines.—May 6.

Sir R. Seppings, Somerset House, for improvements in the construc-
tion of fids or apparatus for striking top-masts and top-gallant masts in
ships.—May 6.

W. Fenner, Bushell Rents, Wapping, carpenter, for an improvement
in machinery for curing smoky and cleansing foul chimneys.—May 6.

A. Allard de la Court, Great Winchester-street, for a new instru<
ment, and improvements in certain well-known instruments applicable
to the organ of sight.—May 6.

J. Schaller, Regent-street, ladies’ shoe-maker, for improvements in
the construction or manufacture of clogs, pattens, or substitutes for
the same.—May 6.

E. Heard, St. Leonard, Shoreditch, chemist, for a certain new com~
position to be used for the purpose of washing in sea and other water.
»~ May 8,

472

Mr. Giddy’s Metevrological Journal.

Articte XIII.

(June,

Extracts from the Meteorological Journal kept at the Apartments of
the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, Penzance. By Mr.
E. C. Giddy, Curator.

BaroMeEter. Reetst. THERM. | Rain in
1826. 100. of} Winp.
Max. | Min. | Mean. |Max. Min.) Mean. |inches.
——— | -————— SSS wh 2 (EN —__ |} $$ | ——————
Apr.23 29-79} 29°70|29:745| 50 | 44 | 470 NW
24) 29:S8| 29-80}29°840) 50 | 44 | 470 N
95| 29-90! 29°86|29°880| 54 | 48 | 510 | 0:09 | NW
26| 29-70| 29:6%/29-690| 56 | 52 | 540 NW
27| 29°60] 29-52/29°560| 56 | 40 | 480 NW
28] 29:94] 29-90|29:920] 48 | 40 | 440 NW
99] 29°98} 29-98 |29:980] 50 | 40 | 450 N
30| 30°02] 29-98 |30:000} 50 | 38 | 440 E
May 1{ 20:12} 30-12|30-120| 55 | 38'| 465 NE
9} 30°00] 29°94|29-970] 57 | 46 | 515 NW
3] 29:90} 29:90/29-900] 57 | 48 | 525 NE
A] 29:98} 29:96|29:970| 50 | 45 | 475 NE
5} 29:98}. 29:95 |29°965/} 54 | 40 | 470 N
6| 29°98] 29:98 |29°980| 54 | 43 | 485 NE
q| 29-98| 29-96 \29°970} 52 | 40 | 460 E
8} 29-90) 29-86 |29°880| 58 | 45 | 515 SE
9] 29:90} 29-90)29°900|.60 | 45 | 525 Var.
10| 29°90} 29°90|29:900| 59 |.45 | 520 NW
11| 29:95] 29°90 29-925} 58 | 45 | 515 NW
12] 30:00] 30:00|30-000| 59 | 48 | 535 E
13] 30°02} 29°94 |29-980| 58 | 43 | 505 E
14] 29:92] 29°92|29-920] 6L | 45 | 530 E
15} 29°98] 29°95 29-965} 62 | 50 560 E
16| 30:00} 30:00 30-000} 64 | 50 | 570 NW.
17| 30:00} 29°99|29-995| 65 | 50 | 575 NW
18] 29°96] 29-80 |29-880| 66 | 50 | 580 SW
19] 29°74) 29°54 29-640] 60 | 52 | 560 | 0-20 | SE
20| 29-60| 29°54 29°570| 62 | 48 550 W
21} 29°90| 29-88 29-890] 62 | 50 | 569 N
2g] 29-92} 29:90 28-910) 69 | 52 | 605 N
30-12| 29:52 29-883! 69 | 38 | 520 | 0-29 | NW
RESULTS.

fin

Remarks,

Fair, clear.
Fair, clear, ashower.
Fair, rain.
Fair. -

Fair, clear.
Clear, a hail shower.
Clear.

Clear.

Clear, frost.
Fair, clear.
Clear.

Clear.
Cloudy.
Cloudy, clear.
Clear.
Cloudy.
Clear.

Clear.

Clear.

Clear.

Clear.

Clear.

Clear. .

Fair, clear.
Clear.

Clear.

Cloudy, rain.
Showers, clear,
Clear.

Clear.

Barometer, mean height .....ccseccssecesseees 29°898
Register Thermometer, ditto ......ceseeceeeeee D20°
Rain, No. 1, 0-290, No.2, 0°450.
f Prevailing wind, NW. ;
No. 1. This rain guage is fixed on the top of the Museum of the Royal Geological

Society of Cornwall, 45 feet above the ground, and 143 above the level of the sea.
No. 2. Close to the ground, 90 feet above the level of the sea.

Penzance, May 23, 1826,

EDWARD C. GIDDY. -

1826.]. Mr. Howard's Meteorological Journal. 473

ARTICLE XIV.
METEOROLOGIGAL TABLE.

a
: BaRoMETER« THERMOMETER.
1826, Wind. Max. Min. Evap. | ' Rain,
4th Mon.
April 11S W}] 30:52 | 30:31 as
2N WI] 30°31 30°30 —
3IN. Wi} 30:32 30°30 —
4IN WI! 30°30 30°27 —_
5IN W)] 30°28 30 24 —_—
6IN Wi 30°26 30°24 "AT
7IN Wi 30:29 30°26 —
SIN W| 30:29 29°94 =
g| 6S 30:08 29°94 —_ 03
10) W 30°08 29°99 — —
Li) OW 29:99 29°27 “48 45
12IN W| 30:27 29°27 _ 33
13|IN. W| 30-40 30°27 —
14iIN WI! 30°40 30°40 —
15|IN W) 30:40 30°31 “49 es
1OIN WI 30°43 30°31 —
17iIN) W| 30°43 30°41 —
18|S E| 30°41 30°27 —
19|S E| 30:27 30°01 —_—
20; E 30°01 29°87 —_
2118 E} 29°87 29°80 —
22)S E| 29°93 29°81 "95 an
23IN WI 30°04 29°93 —
94IN WI] 30°16 30°04 —
25IN Wi 30°16 29°87 — 15
201IN WI 29°87 29:67 _ 1k
27| Var. | 30°05 29°66 _ 03
28IN W| 30°17 30°05 —
29IN Wi 30°32 30°17 _ —-
30; N 30°43 30°32 *82
30°52 29°27 a2 12

The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours,
beginning at 9 A, M. on the day indicated in the first column, <A dash denotes that
the result is included in the next following observation,

474 Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journal, [JuNnE,

REMARKS.

Fourth Month.—\, Fine. 2. Cloudy. 3—8. Fine. 9, Fine: a shower of rain
about five, p.m. 10. Fine. 11, Showery night. 19. Rainy. 13—17. Fine.
18. Fine: a very distinct lunar halo, 19. Ditto. 20—24. Fine. 25, Showers.
26. Fine: some rain in the night, 27. Showers. 28, Fine. 29. Slight showers of
hail during the day. 30. Fine.

RESULTS.

Winds: N,1; E,1; SE,4; S,1; SW, 1; W,23 NW, 195 Var. 1.
Barometer: Mean height

For the QRONEs yaa sr. ds «cp digas ss!s cob and'niso'e.9 welvieas hl Guiee-MUCHESs

Thermometer: Mean height

For the MONth s.c.gpie cade e wtwekger cob seeunehie coeh cen 50°500°
Evaporation Pe Rem eee meee eee ee eH eT Hea ETAHEESTOSERETSESEEEEES 3-21 in.

Rain. SOSH H EHTS HETERO EES HET EHEE Hess eee eee HEOR HEHE EEES 1:12

Laboratory, Stratford, Fifth Month, 20, 1826. R. HOWARD.

INDEX.

Pa

CIDS, hyponitrous and sulphuric,
analysis of a compound of, 368.
sulphuric, itsaction on napthaline,

227.

Aérolites, fall of, 149.

Maryland, analysis of, charac«
ters of, 149.

Amalgamation, description of the process
as now carried on in Germany, 196,

Analysis of oil of wine, 291,

dioptase, 305.

the ore of iridium, 17.

Anatomical preparations, on the preserva-
tion of, 315. .

Anthracite and plumbago, &e. experi-
ments on, 104,

Archipelago, Indian, on the expediency
of surveying it, 178. -

Architecture, naval, on, 20, 405,

Arseniate of iron, on, 147,

Amami on the modes of detecting of,

Art of embalming, 215.

Astronomical observations, 83, 177, 247,
367.

——

— Society of London, analysis

of memoirs of the, 282.

report of the Commit
tee on Mr, Tulley’s telescope, 440.

Atmasphere, constitution of, 289,

Atmospheric electricity, on, 75.

Attractions, local, 315.

Australia, coasts of, account of geological
specimens from, 139.

B.

Babbage, Mr. on the expression of the
parts of machinery by signs, 292.

Baily, Mr. his address on presenting the
gold medals to Mr. Herschel, Mr.
South, and M. Struve, 454.

Barometer, on the, 223.

Barlow, Mr. on the temporary magnetic
ri induced in iron bodies by rotation,

Beaufoy, Col. astronomical observations,
83, 177, 247, 367—on the going of a

clock with a wooden pendulum, 162—
meteorological table kept at Bushey
Heath, 94.

Berzelius, Prof. observations on some mi-
neral species, 23—discovery of lithia in
mineral waters, 69, 145—on the orange
gas produced from a mixture of fluor
spar and chromate of lead, 146—on
detecting arsenic, 232—researches on
molybdena, 235—on the alterations
which must be made in the systems of
chemical mineralogy by isomorphism,
381, 420.

Bevan, Mr. on the elasticity of ice, 450,

Beudantite, description of, 194.

Bigsby, Dr.. on the geology of the valley
of St. Lawrence, 461,

Bitumens of England and France, com«
parative analyses of, 70.

Blowpipe, means of detecting lithia in
minerals by, 131.

Books, analyses of, 51, 202, 281.

new scientific, account of, 79,

157, 239, 317, 470.

Braconnot, M. analysis of soot from a
wood fire, 394—analysis of lamp black,
395.

Brewster, Dr. on the phosphorescence of
certain fluids, 303.

Brinkley, Dr. on the application of the
floating collimator to the Dublin circle,
450,

C.

Candle, flame of, on the, 176.

Carbon and hydrogen, new compounds of,
95.

Carpenter, Mr. on the sulphate of rhu-
barb, 304.

Chalk and sands beneath it, on the, at
Lyme Regis, 143,

Chapman, M. on the construction of ships
of war, 413.

Charmouth, on traces of a submarine
forest at, 143,

Chemistry, its influence in the affairs of
life, 333.

476

Children, male and female, proportion of,
1A,

Chilton, Mr. analysis of the Maryland
aérolite, 149.

Climate, on, with regard to horticulture,
114.

Cockles, live, on the discovery of, in a
peat moss distant from the sea, 464,
Collimator, floating, on the application of,

to the Dublin circle, 450.

Combustion of compressed gas, on the,
ill.

Compton, Lord, on the discovery of gra-
nite with green felspar in the excava-
tions at Tivoli, 142.

Cooper, Mr. description of a new species
of grosbeak, 134.

Crichton, Sir A. on the Taunus moun-
tains in Nassau, 301.

(Curves, on a new application of the me-
thod of parameters to the determination
of, 322,

D.

Dalton, Mr. on the constitution of the
atmosphere, 289.

Daniell, Mr. on, climate with regard to
horticulture, 114—on the barometer,
223.

Davies, Mr. on the combustion of com-
pressed gas, 111.

Davy, Dr. on the poison of the common
toad, 137—on the heart of animals be-
longing to the genus rana, 138.

— Sir H. further researches on the
preservation of metals by electrochemi-
cal means, 248.

Deer, fossil, of Ireland, 305.

De la Beche, Mr. on the chalk and sands
beneath it. in the vicinity of Lyme Re-
gis, 143—on traces of a submarine
forest at Charmouth, Dorset, 143—on
the geology of Jamaica, 230, —

Decomposition, reciprocal, of bodies, on
the, 279.

Distribution of land and water, 469.

Dioptase, analysis of, 505.

Drummond, Lieut. on new means of con-
necting different stations in geological
operations, 451.

Dublin circle, on. the application of the
floating collimator to, 450.

Duntze, Mr. method of browning iron,
238.

Dyeing of scarlet, on, 401.

E.

Edingtonite, on the optical structure of,

Index.

Eggs, on the change of weight of, during
incubation, 72,

Elasticity of ice, on the, 450.

Eleciricity, atmospheric, on, 75.

Electrochemistry, on the preservation of
metals by, 248.

Embalming, on the art of, 215.

Emmett, Rev. Mr. on finding the longi-
tude at sea, 24,

Ergot, on the origin of, 14,

F.

Faraday, Mr. on new compounds of car.
bon and hydrogen, and on certain other
products obtained during the decompo-
sition of oil by heat, 44, 95—on the
non-production of vapour in certain
cases in which it had been supposed to
exist, 391—on the action of sulphuric
acid upon napthaline, 227.

Felspar, green, on the granite containing
vod in the excavations at Tivoli,

Fermat, theorem of, extension of, 82,

Fitton, Dr. account of some geological
specimens collected by Capt. King, on
the coasts of Australia, 139.

Flame of a candle, on the, 176,

Floating ‘collimator, on the application of,
to the Dublin circle, 450.

Fluids, on the phosphorescence of, 303.

Fossil timber, on the coast of Norfolk, on

_ the re-appearance of, 142,

— deer of Ireland, 305,

G.

Galway and Mayo, account of a mineral-
ogical excursion into, 271.

Gas, .compressed, on the combustion of,
M11,

—— orange, production of, from a mix-
ture of fluor spar and chromate of lead,
146.

Gay-Lussac, M. on the reciprocal decom.
position of bodies, 279.

Geology of Jamaica, on the, 230.

George, Mr. experiments on the colouring
matter of lac, &c. 401.

Germany, description of process of amal-
gamation in, 196.

Giddy, Mr. meteorological journal kept at
Penzance, 472.

Giésecke, Sir C. L. account of a mineralo-
gical excursion to the counties of Gal-
way and Mayo, 271.

Gold medals presented to Mr. Herschel,
Mr. South, and M. Struve, 454,

Index.

Granville, Dr. on Egyptian mummies and
the art of embalming, 215.

Green, Rinmann’s preparation of, 303.

nti description of a new species of,
13 .

H.

Harvey, Mr. on naval architecture, 20.

Heart of animals belonging to the genus
rana, on the, 138,

Heberden, Dr. on the heat of July, 1825,
&c. 138.

Heights, measurement of, by one barome-
ter, 33—on the accuracy of, 363.

Hedgehog-ray, on the, 112.

Hennel, Mr. on the analysis of oil of wine,
and on the salts called sulphovinates,
291.

Henry, Dr. analysis of a compound of
hyponitrous and sulphuric acids, 368.
M. comparative analysis of the
bitumens of England and France, 70.
Herapath, Mr. on Mr. Horner’s solution

of 7 r= 7, 246,

Herschel, Mr. account of a series of ob-
servations to determine the difference of
longitude between the national obser-
vatories of Greenwich and Paris, 138.
a gold medal presented to,

Horner, Mr. extension of a theorem of
Fermat, 82—reply to Mr, Herapath,
363—on the solutions of the function
Vix = x, and their limitations, 168,
241—on the use of continued fractions
with unrestricted numerators in summa-
tion of series, 416.

gras on climate, with regard to,

Howard, Mr. R. meteorological tables, 79,
159, 319, 397, 473.

cg race, on the species or varieties of,

Hydrogen, remarks on the specific gravity
of, 187. 4

Hydrometers, glass, on a simple mode of
engraving, 261,

I.

Ice, on the elasticity of, 450.

Incubation, on the change of weight of
eggs during, 72.

Indian archipelago, on the expediency of

- surveying it, 178.

Institution, Royal, proceedings at, 294,
390, 453.

Treland, fossil deer of, 305.

Tridium, analysis of the ore of, 17,

t

477

Iron, arseniates of, composition of, 23.

— bodies, on the temporary magnetic
effect produced on, by rotation, 444.

— method of browning it, 238.

— soft, on the cutting of steel by, 315.

Isomorphism, alterations which must be
made un account of, in systems of che«
mical mineralogy, 381.

changes which it occasions

in the system of mineralogy, 420,

J.

Jamaica, on the geology of, 230.

K.

Kater, Capt. abstract of his account of the
construction and adjustment of the
standard weights and measures, 154.

Kendall, Mr. on the cutting of steel by
soft iron, 315.

Kidd, Dr. on the anatomy of the mole
cricket, 202.

Konigine, description of, 194,

L,

Lac, experiments on the colouring matter
of, 401.

Lamp-black, analysis of, 395.

Land and water, distribution of, 469.

Leslie, Prof. on a new instrument for as-
certaining the specific gravity of pow-
ders, 313.

Levy, M. description of twonew minerals,

194,

Light, on the magnetizing power of the
more refrangible rays of, 224.

Lithia, in minerals, on the means of de-
tecting, 131.

discovery of, in mineral waters,

69, 145.

Live cockles, discovery of, in a peat moss
distant from the sea, 464.

Longitude at sea, on finding of, 24.

Longmire, Mr. on the flame of a candle,
166,

Lozenges, alkaline digestive, 395.

Lyell, Mr. on the strata of the plastic
clay formation in some parts of Dorset-
shire, 392,

Lyme Regis, on the chalk and sands be~
neath it at, 143.

478
M.

x

Machinery, on the expression of parts of,
. by signs, 292.

Magnetism, temporary effect of, produced

. on iron bodies by rotation, 444.

Magnetizing power of the more refrangible

. rays of light, 224.

Major, Mr. on English books of naval
architecture, 405.

Martin, Gen. on the origin of ergot, 14.

Medals, gold, presented to Mr. Herschel,
Mr. South, and M. Struve, 454.

Metals, on the preservation of, by electro«
chemical means, 248.

Michegar, native silver from, 237.

Minerals, new, description of, 194,

Mineral waters, on the discovery of lithia
in, 145.

Mines, on the temperature of, 259.

Mitchill, S. D. on the hedgehog-ray, 112.

Mole cricket, on the anatomy of, 202.

Moore, Mr. on a simple method of gradu

~ ating glass hydrometers, 261.

Mosely, Mr. on a new application of the
method of parameters to the determina-
tion of certain curves, 322.

Molybdena, researches on, 235.

Moyle, Mr. meteorological register, 163—
on the temnperature of mines, 259.

Mummies, Egyptian, on, and the art of
embalming, 215.

Murchison, Mr. geological sketch of part

of the west of Sussex, 144.

N.

Napthaline, on the action of sulphuric
~ aeid upon, 227.

Naval architecture, on, 20, 405.

—on English books on,

405. :
Naussau, on the Taunus mountains in,
301.
Nixon, Mr. on the measurement of
heights by one barometer, 33, 84—on
the accuracy of, 363,

oO.

Observatories of Greenwich and Paris, on
the difference of the longitude of, 138.
Oil of wine, analysis of, 291,
~— on the products obtained during its
_ decomposition by heat, 44, 95.
-—- volatile, obtained from soap ley,
326,

Inder °

Olivine, composition of, '70.
Osborne, Dr. on the vegetable principle of
the saponaria officinalis, 302.

P.

Pantochronometer, description of, 153.

Parameters, on a new application of, to
the determination of certain curves,
S225

Paris and Fonblanque on the poison of
the toad, 277. '

Patents, new, 158,240, 318, 471.

Pecten niveus, a new species, 312.

Peridot, examination of, 69. :

Phosphorescence of certain fluids, 303. ~

Phosphorescent plants, 468. . u

Photometry, historical sketch of, 371

Plants, on the poisoning of, 469.

phosphorescent; 468.

Plumbago and anthracite, &c. experi-
ments on, 104.

Poison of the toad, on the, 137.

Poisoning of plants, 469.

Pond, Mr. on an appearance hitherto un-
noticed in the nebula of Orion; 391. ~~ -

Pouillet, M. on atmospheric electricity, 75.

‘Powders, specific gravity of, on a new in-

strument for ascertaining, 313.

Powell, Rey. B. historical sketch of pho~
tometry, 371.

Power, magnetizing, of the more refrangi-
ble rays of light, 224.

Preparations, anatomical, on the preser-
vation of, 315.

Prout, Dr. remarks on his modification of
the atomic theory, 187.

R.

Raining trees, 468.

Rainy, Mr. further remarks on the speci-
fic gravity of hydrogen, and on Dr.
Prout’s modification of the atomic
theory, in reply to Dr. Thomson, 187.

Rana, genus of, on the heart of, 138. °

Register, meteorological, kept at Helston,
&ce. 163.

Report of the Committee on Mr. Tulley’s
telescope, 440,

Rhubarb, sulphate of, on the, 304.

Rinmann’s green, preparation of, 303.

Rotation, magnetic effect produced by, in
iron bodies, 444, ? ,

Index.

8.

Saponaria officinalis, on. the vegetable
principle of, 302.

Scanlan, Mr. on a volatile oil possessing
peculiar properties obtained from soap
ley, 326. ;

Scarlet, dyeing on, 401.

Schoolcraft, on native silver from Miche-

” gan, 237.

Scrope, Mr. analysis of his work on vol-
canoes, 51.

Sedgwick, Prof. on the classification of
the strata which appear on the York~
shire coast, 339.

Severn, shores of, geological survey of,
151.

Ships of war, on the construction of, 413.

Silliman, Prof. on the physical characters
of the Maryland aérolite, 149.

Silver, native, from Michegan, 237.

Soap ley, peculiar volatile oil obtained
from, 326.

Society, astronomical, proceedings of, 62,
999, 295, 391, 454.

—— geological, proceedings of, 139,
231, 301, 461.

Linnean, proceedings of, 62,

295.
— Medico-Botanical, proceedings of,
232,

— Royal, analysis of Transactions

of, 202, 281.

—__—_—— proceedings of, 55, 137,
223, 390, 450.

Zoological, organization of, 463.

Somerville, Mrs. on the magnetizing
power of the more refrangible rays of
light, 224.

Sound as a substance, 467.

South, Mr. gold medal presented to,
ADA.

Bs gravity of hydrogen gas, on the,

87.

Steel, on the cutting of, by soft iron, 315.

Stephens, Mr. on the influence of chemis-
try on the affairs of life considered,
333.

Sulphovinates, on the salts so called,
291.

Stars, double, a comparison of observa-
tions made on, 460.

Stickleback, on the habits and food of,
173.

St. Lawrence, valley of, geology of, 460.

Strata north of the Humber, account of,

5.
Strata of the Yorkshire coast, stratification
of, 339.
Struye, Prof. a comparison of observations
made on double stars, 460—gold medal
presented to, 454,

479

Sulphuric acid, its ‘action on napthaline,
22T.

Survey, geological, of the shores of the
Severn, 157.

Sussex, west of, geological sketch of part
of, 144. ‘

T..

Table, meteorological, 79, 159, 319,397,
AT2. :

—- meteorological, -kept at Bushey
Heath, 94. ,

Taylor, Mr. on the re-appearance of fossil
timber on the coast of Norfolk, 142.
Telescope, Mr. Tulley’s, report respecting

it, 440.

Temperature of mines, on the, 259.

Thomson, Dr. answer to Dr. Ure’s re-
view of his work in the Journal of
Science, 1—analysis of the ore of iri-
dium, 17—on arseniate of iron, 147.

Thorina, its compound nature, 23.

Tivoli, on the granite found in the excava~
tions at, 142,

Tee common, on the poison of, 137,
277.

Trees, raining, 468.

moe Mr. report respecting his telescope,

0.

Turner, Dr. on the means of detecting
lithia in minerals by the blowpipe, 131
—analysis of his introduction to the
study of the laws of chemical combina~
tion and the atomic theory, &c. 386.

U.

Ure, Dr. answer to his review of Dr.
Thomson’s attempt, &c. 1.

V.

Vanuxem, Mr. experiments on anthracite,
plumbago, &c. 104.

Vapour, on the non-production of, in cer-
tain cases in which it had been supposed
to exist, 391.

Vauquelin, analysis of a new variety of
wolfram, 328.

Vernon, Rev. Mr. account of the strata
north of the Humber, 435.

Volatile oil, peculiar one, obtained from
soap ley, 326.

Vivian, Mr. description of amalgamation
as now carried on in Germany, 196,
262.

Voleanoes, analysis of Mr. Scrope’s work
on, 51,

480
Ww.

Walmstedt, M. examination of peridot,
69—of olivine, 70.

Water and land, distribution of, 469.

Weights and measures, changes in, 73.

—_ ————— standard, construc.
tion and adjustment of, 154.

Wilton, Rey. Mr. geological survey of
the shores of the Severn, 151.

Wine, oil of, analysis of, 291.

Witham, Mr. on the discovery of live
cockles in a peat moss distant from the
sea, 464,

eens analysis of a new variety of,

8.

Index.

Wood soot, analysis of, 395.

Woodhouse, Mr. on the transit instrument
made by Dollond, and put up at the
Cambridge University, 281.

Vu

Yorkshire coast, classification of the
Strata of, 339,

Z.

Zoological Society, organization of, 463.

END OF VOL. XI.

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